Leonid Hurwicz
Leonid "Leo" Hurwicz (August 21, 1917 – June 24, 2008) was an American economist and mathematician of Polish descent. He originated incentive compatibility and mechanism design, which show how desired outcomes are achieved in economics, social science and political science. Interactions of individuals and institutions, markets and trade are analyzed and understood today using the models Hurwicz developed.[1]
Hurwicz was Regents' Professor of Economics (Emeritus) at the University of Minnesota. He was among the first economists to recognize the value of game theory and was a pioneer in its application.[2][3] Hurwicz shared the 2007 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Eric Maskin and Roger Myerson for their work on mechanism design.[4]
Personal life
Hurwicz was born in Moscow, Russia to a Jewish family a few months before the October Revolution. The family was Polish and had lived in Congress Kingdom (the part of Poland then within the Russian Empire) but had been displaced by World War I. Soon after Leonid's birth, the family returned to Warsaw, Poland.[5] Hurwicz and his family experienced persecution by both the Bolsheviks and Nazis,[6] as he again became a refugee when Hitler invaded Poland in 1939. His parents and brother fled Warsaw, only to be arrested and sent to Soviet labor camps. Hurwicz, who had graduated from Warsaw University in 1938, at the time of German invasion on Poland was in London, moved to Switzerland then to Portugal and finally in 1940 he emigrated to the United States. His family eventually joined him there.[7][8]
Hurwicz hired Evelyn Jensen (born October 31, 1921), who grew up on a Wisconsin farm and was, at the time, an undergraduate in economics at the University of Chicago, as his teaching assistant during the 1940s. They married in 1944[9] and later lived on the Mississippi River parkway in Minneapolis, Minnesota. They had four children: Sarah, Michael, Ruth and Maxim.[7]
His interests included linguistics, archaeology, biochemistry and music.[5] His activities outside the field of economics included research in meteorology and membership in the NSF Commission on Weather Modification. When Eugene McCarthy ran for president of the United States, Hurwicz served in 1968 as a McCarthy delegate from Minnesota to the Democratic Party Convention and a member of the Democratic Party Platform Committee. He helped design the 'walking subcaucus' method of allocating delegates among competing groups, which is still used today by political parties. He remained an active Democrat; even attending Precinct Caucus in February 2008, at age 90.[9]
He was hospitalized in mid-June 2008, suffering from renal failure. He died a week later in Minneapolis.[10][11]
Education and early academic career
Encouraged by his father to study law,[5] in 1938 Hurwicz received his LL.M. degree from the University of Warsaw, where he discovered his future vocation in economics class. He then studied at the London School of Economics with Nicholas Kaldor and Friedrich Hayek.[7] In 1939 he moved to Geneva where he studied at the Graduate Institute of International Studies[5][12] and attended the seminar of Ludwig von Mises.[13] After moving to the United States he continued his studies at Harvard University and the University of Chicago.[5] Hurwicz had no degree in economics. In 2007 he said, "Whatever economics I learned I learned by listening and learning."[14]
In 1941 Hurwicz was a research assistant to Paul Samuelson at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and to Oskar Lange at the University of Chicago.[9] At Illinois Institute of Technology during the war, Hurwicz taught electronics to the U.S. Army Signal Corps.[15] From 1942 to 1944, at the University of Chicago, he was a member of the faculty of the Institute of Meteorology and taught statistics in the Department of Economics. About 1942 his advisors were Jacob Marschak and Tjalling Koopmans at the Cowles Commission for Research in Economics at the University of Chicago,[16] now the Cowles Foundation at Yale University.
Teaching and research
Hurwicz received a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1945–1946.[12] In 1946 he became an associate professor of economics at Iowa State College.[9] From January 1942 until June 1946, he was a research associate for the Cowles Commission. Joining full time in October 1950 until January 1951, he was a visiting professor, assuming Koopman's classes in the Department of Economics, and led the commission's research on theory of resource allocation.[12] He was also a research professor of economics and mathematical statistics at the University of Illinois, a consultant to the RAND Corporation through the University of Chicago and a consultant to the U.S. Bureau of the Budget.[17] Hurwicz continued to be a consultant to the Cowles Commission until about 1961.[18]
Hurwicz was recruited by Walter Heller[6] to the University of Minnesota in 1951, where he became a professor of economics and mathematics in the School of Business Administration.[12] He spent most of the rest of his career there, but it was interspersed with studies and teaching elsewhere in the United States and Asia. In 1955 and again in 1958 Hurwicz was a visiting professor, and a fellow on the second visit, at Stanford University and there in 1959 published "Optimality and Informational Efficiency in Resource Allocation Processes" on mechanism design.[9] He taught at Bangalore University in 1965 and, during the 1980s, at Tokyo University, People's University (now Renmin University of China) and the University of Indonesia. In the United States he was a visiting professor at Harvard in 1969, at the University of California, Berkeley in 1976, at Northwestern University twice in 1988 and 1989, at the University of California, Santa Barbara in 1998, the California Institute of Technology in 1999 and the University of Michigan in 2002. He was a visiting Distinguished Professor at the University of Illinois in 2001.[9]
Back at Minnesota, Hurwicz became chairman of the Statistics Department in 1961, Regents Professor of Economics in 1969, and Curtis L. Carlson Regents Professor of Economics in 1989.[9] He taught subjects ranging from theory to welfare economics, public economics, mechanisms and institutions and mathematical economics.[6] Although he retired from full time teaching in 1988,[8] Hurwicz taught graduate school as professor emeritus most recently in the fall of 2006.[8] In 2007 his ongoing research was described by the University of Minnesota as "comparison and analysis of systems and techniques of economic organization, welfare economics, game-theoretic implementation of social choice goals, and modeling economic institutions."[19]
Hurwicz's interests included mathematical economics and modeling and the theory of the firm.[3] His published works in these fields date back to 1944.[20] He is internationally renowned for his pioneering research on economic theory, particularly in the areas of mechanism and institutional design and mathematical economics. In the 1950s, he worked with Kenneth Arrow on non-linear programming;[3] in 1972 Arrow became the youngest person to receive the Nobel Economics prize.[21] Hurwicz was the graduate advisor to Daniel McFadden,[22] who received the prize in 2000.[23]
Earlier economists often avoided analytic modeling of economic institutions. Hurwicz's work was instrumental in showing how economic models can provide a framework for the analysis of systems, such as capitalism and socialism, and how the incentives in such systems affect members of society.[24] The theory of incentive compatibility that Hurwicz developed changed the way many economists thought about outcomes, explaining why centrally planned economies may fail and how incentives for individuals make a difference in decision making.[22]
Hurwicz served on the editorial board of several journals. He co-edited and contributed to two collections for Cambridge University Press: Studies in Resource Allocation Processes (1978, with Kenneth Arrow) and Social Goals and Social Organization (1987, with David Schmeidler and Hugo Sonnenschein). His most recent articles were published in the journals "Economic Theory" (2003, with Thomas Marschak), "Review of Economic Design" (2001, with Stanley Reiter) and "Advances in Mathematical Economics" (2003, with Marcel K. Richter).[25] Hurwicz presented the Fisher-Schultz (1963), Richard T. Ely (1972), David Kinley (1989) and Colin Clark (1997) lectures.
Awards and honors
Memberships and honorary degrees
Hurwicz was elected a fellow of the Econometric Society in 1947 and in 1969 was the society's president. Hurwicz was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1965. In 1974 he was inducted into the National Academy of Sciences and in 1977 was named a Distinguished Fellow of the American Economic Association.[7] Hurwicz received the National Medal of Science in 1990 in Behavorial and Social Science, presented to him by President of the United States George H. W. Bush, "for his pioneering work on the theory of modern decentralized allocation mechanisms".[3][9]
He served on the United Nations Economic Commission in 1948 and the United States National Research Council in 1954. In 1964 he was a member of the National Science Foundation Commission on Weather Modification. He was a member of the American Academy of Independent Scholars (1979) and a Distinguished Scholar of the California Institute of Technology (1984).[9]
Hurwicz received six honorary doctorates, from Northwestern University (1980), the University of Chicago (1993), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (1989), Keio University (1993), Warsaw School of Economics (1994) and Universität Bielefeld (2004).[7] He was an honorary visiting professor of the Huazhong University of Science and Technology School of Economics (1984).[26]
Named for Hurwicz
First presented in 1950, the Hurwicz criterion is thought about to this day in the area of decision making called "under uncertainty."[27][28][29] Abraham Wald published decision functions that year.[30] Hurwicz combined Wald's ideas with work done in 1812 by Pierre-Simon Laplace.[31] Hurwicz's criterion gives each decision a value which is "a weighted sum of its worst and best possible outcomes" represented as α and known as an index of pessimism or optimism.[28] Variations have been proposed ever since and some corrections came very soon from Leonard Jimmie Savage in 1954.[27] These four approaches – Laplace, Wald, Hurwicz and Savage – have been studied, corrected and applied for over fifty years by many different people including John Milnor, G. L. S. Shackle,[27] Daniel Ellsberg,[32] R. Duncan Luce and Howard Raiffa, in a field some date back to Jacob Bernoulli.[33]
The Leonid Hurwicz Distinguished Lecture is given to the Minnesota Economic Association (as is the Heller lecture). John Ledyard (2007), Robert Lucas, Roger Myerson, Edward C. Prescott, James Quirk, Nancy Stokey and Neil Wallace are among those who have delivered the lecture since it was inaugurated in 1992.
Nobel Prize in Economics
In October 2007, Hurwicz shared the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Eric Maskin of the Institute for Advanced Study and Roger Myerson of the University of Chicago "for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory."[34] During a telephone interview, a representative of the Nobel Foundation told Hurwicz and his wife that Hurwicz was the oldest person to win the Nobel Prize. Hurwicz said, "I hope that others who deserve it also got it." When asked which of all the applications of mechanism design he was most pleased to see he said welfare economics.[35] The winners applied game theory, a field advanced by mathematician John Forbes Nash, to discover the best and most efficient means to reach a desired outcome, taking into account individuals' knowledge and self-interest, which may be hidden or private.[36] Mechanism design has been used to model negotiations and taxation, voting and elections,[4] to design auctions such as those for communications bandwidth,[22] elections and labor talks[36] and for pricing stock options.[37]
Unable to attend the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm because of his age,[38][39] Hurwicz received the prize in Minneapolis. Accompanied by Evelyn, his spouse of six decades, and his family, he was the guest of honor at a convocation held on the campus of the University of Minnesota presided over by university president Robert Bruininks. Immediately following a live broadcast of the Nobel Prize awards ceremony, Jonas Hafstrom, Swedish ambassador to the United States, personally awarded the Economics Prize to Professor Hurwicz.[40]
Publications
- Hurwicz, Leonid (1945). "The Theory of Economic Behavior" American Economic Review, 35(5), pp. 909–925. Exposition on game theory classic.
- Hurwicz, Leonid (1969). "On the Concept and Possibility of Informational Decentralization," American Economic Review, 59(2), p. 513–524.
- Hurwicz, Leonid (1973). The design of mechanisms for resource allocation, Amer. Econ. Rev., 63, pp. 1–30.
- Hurwicz, Leonid (1995). "What is the Coase Theorem?," Japan and the World Economy, 7(1), pp. 49–74. Abstract.
- Hurwicz, Leonid; Stanley Reiter. Designing Economic Mechanisms. Cambridge: University Press. ISBN 0521836417.
References
- ↑ Lohr, Steve (2007-10-16). "Three Share Nobel in Economics for Work on Social Mechanisms", The New York Times, The New York Times Company. Retrieved on 2007-10-19.
- ↑ Kuhn, Harold (introduction) (1944, 2004, 7 August 2007). "Sample Chapter for von Neumann, John & Morgenstern, Oskar. Theory of Games and Economic Behavior (Commemorative Edition)". Princeton University Press. Retrieved on 2007-10-20.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Higgins, Charlotte (15 October 2007). "Americans win Nobel for economics", BBC News. Retrieved on 2007-10-15.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Ohlin, Pia (15 October 2007). "US trio wins Nobel Economics Prize", Agence France Presse. Retrieved on 2007-10-15.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Hughes, Art (15 October 2007). "Leonid Hurwicz—commanding intellect, humble soul, Nobel Prize winner", Minnesota Public Radio. Retrieved on 2007-10-15.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 "A house resolution honoring Professor Leo Hurwicz on his 90th birthday". Legislature of the State of Minnesota (image via University of Minnesota, umn.edu) (9 April 2007). Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Clement, Douglas (Fall 2006). "Intelligent Designer" (PDF). Minnesota Economics (Department of Economics, University of Minnesota College of Liberal Arts): 6–9. http://www.econ.umn.edu/magazine/MinnesotaEconomics1106.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Horwath, Justin (16 October 2007). "U economics prof awarded Nobel Prize", The Minnesota Daily. Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 "Perspectives on Leo Hurwicz, A Celebration of 90 Years (timeline)" (PDF). University of Minnesota (econ.umn.edu) (14 April 2007). Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
- ↑ Leonid Hurwicz, oldest Nobel winner, dies, Minneapolis Star Tribune, June 25, 2008
- ↑ Leonid Hurwicz, oldest Nobel winner, dies at 90, New York Times, June 26, 2008
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 "Five-Year Report, 1942–46, XII. Biographical and Bibliographic Notes". Cowles Foundation, Yale University (1942–1946). Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
- ↑ Ransom, Greg (15 October 2007). "Hurwicz Took Part in the Mises Seminar". Mises.org Weblog, Ludwig von Mises Institute. Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
- ↑ Chiacu, Doina (Reuters) (15 October 2007). "Russian-born U.S. economist oldest-ever Nobel winner", Reuters Group. Retrieved on 2007-10-15.
- ↑ "Report for 1942". Cowles Foundation, Yale University (1942). Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
- ↑ Simon, Herbert A. (28 September 1998) [1997]. An Empirically-Based Microeconomics (Raffaele Mattioli Lectures). Cambridge University Press. pp. 193. ISBN 0-5216-2412-6.
- ↑ "Report for 1950–1951". Cowles Foundation, Yale University (1951). Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
- ↑ "Cowles Foundation for Research in Economics: Staff Lists, 1955-Present". Yale University. Retrieved on 2007-10-20.
- ↑ Regents of the University of Minnesota. "University of Minnesota Professor Leonid Hurwicz wins Nobel Prize in economics". Press release. Retrieved on 2007-10-15.
- ↑ "Major Works of Leonid Hurwicz". The history of Economic Thought. cepa.newschool.edu. Retrieved on 2007-10-15.
- ↑ "Nobel Laureates". Frequently Asked Questions. Nobelprize.org (2007). Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Morrison, Deanne (15 October 2007). "University professor wins Nobel Prize", UMN News, Regents of the University of Minnesota. Retrieved on 2007-10-15.
- ↑ "All Laureates in Economics". Nobelprize.org (2007). Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
- ↑ Myerson, Roger B. (2007-02-28) (pdf), Fundamental Theory of Institutions: A Lecture in Honor of Leo Hurwicz, University of Chicago, pp. 2, http://home.uchicago.edu/~rmyerson/research/hurwicz.pdf, retrieved on 2007-10-15 . Hurwicz Lecture originally presented at the North American meetings of the Econometric Society, at the University of Minnesota on 2006-06-22.
- ↑ Hurwicz, Leonid and Reiter, Stanley (22 May 2006). Designing Economic Mechanisms. Cambridge University Press. pp. Frontmatter (PDF) via Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-5218-3641-7. http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521836417. Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
- ↑ "Academic Exchange with Foreign Institutions". Huazhong University of Science and Technology School of Economics. Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Zappia, Carlo and Basili, Marcello (May 2005). "Shackle versus Savage: non-probabilistic alternatives to subjective probability theory in the 1950s". QUADERNI (Università degli Studi di Siena, Dipartimento di Economia Politica) (452). http://www.econ-pol.unisi.it/dipartimento/it/node/288. Retrieved on 2007-10-19.
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 Jaffray, Jean-Yves and Jeleva, Meglena (16-19 July 2007). "Information Processing under Imprecise Risk with the Hurwicz criterion" (PDF). International Symposium on Imprecise Probability: Theories and Applications (conference proceedings via sipta.org). Retrieved on 2007-10-19.
- ↑ Luce, R. Duncan and Raiffa, Howard (1989) [1957 ISBN 0-4715-5341-7]. Games and Decisions: Introduction and Critical Survey. Dover Publications via Amazon Reader, Look Inside. pp. xvii +304-305 per Ellsberg p. 180. ISBN 0-4866-5943-7.
- ↑ Wald, Abraham (1950). Statistical Decision Functions. John Wiley & Sons.
- ↑ John Milnor credits Hurwicz with this idea. Straffin, Philip D. (5 September 1996). Game Theory and Strategy (New Mathematical Library). The Mathematical Association of America via Amazon Reader Search Inside. pp. 58–59. ISBN 0-8838-5637-9.
- ↑ Ellsberg, Daniel (2001). Risk, Ambiguity And Decision (Studies in Philosophy). New York, N.Y.: Garland Publishing via Amazon Reader, Search Inside. pp. xxii. ISBN 0-8153-4022-2.
- ↑ Kramer, Edna Ernestine (1982). The Nature and Growth of Modern Mathematics. Princeton University Press via Google Books limited preview. pp. 290. ISBN 0-6910-2372-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=LLEZQC74gVcC&pg=PA290. Retrieved on 2007-10-19.
- ↑ Nobel Foundation (October 15, 2007). "The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 2007". Press release. Retrieved on 2007-10-25.
- ↑ "Leonid Hurwicz - Interviews". Nobel Foundation (October 15, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-10-25.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 Tong, Vinnie (Associated Press) (15 October 2007). "U.S. Trio Wins Nobel Economics Prize", Forbes.com, Forbes. Retrieved on 2007-10-15.
- ↑ Bergman, Jonas and Kennedy, Simon (15 October 2007). "Hurwicz, Maskin and Myerson Win Nobel Economics Prize", Bloomberg. Retrieved on 2007-10-15.
- ↑ "Russian-born Nobel Prize winner lives in nursing home", Russia Today, TV-Novosti (19 October 2007). Retrieved on 2007-10-19.
- ↑ Walsh, Paul (2007-12-10). "U professor to receive his Nobel Prize today", Minneapolis Star-Tribune. Retrieved on 2007-12-10.
- ↑ Art Hughes (2007-12-10). "Minnesota's newest Nobel Laureate receives his prize", Minnesota Public Radio. Retrieved on 2007-12-10.
External links
- Hurwicz Nobel Prize lecture
- Soumyen Sikdar, Leonid Hurwicz (1917–2008): A Tribute, Contemporary Issues and Ideas in Social Sciences, Vol 4, No 2 (2008)
- "Perspectives on Leo Hurwicz (conference program and photos)". University of Minnesota (econ.umn.edu) (14 April 2007). Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
- Clement, Douglas (Fall 2006). "Intelligent Designer (cover story)" (PDF). Minnesota Economics (Department of Economics, University of Minnesota College of Liberal Arts): 6–9. http://www.econ.umn.edu/magazine/MinnesotaEconomics1106.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
- "Intelligent design", The Economist, The Economist Group (18 October 2007). Retrieved on 2007-10-18.
- Cho, Adrian (15 October 2007). "The Economics Nobel: Giving Adam Smith a Helping Hand", ScienceNOW Daily News, American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved on 2007-10-19.
- Fonseca, Gonçalo L. (author and maintainer). "Major Works of Leonid Hurwicz, in Leonid Hurwicz, 1917–". History of Economic Thought Website, The New School. Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
- IDEAS/RePEc
- Tabarrok, Alex (2007-10-16). "What is Mechanism Design? Explaining the research that won the 2007 Nobel Prize in Economics.". Reasononline news. Reason Magazine. Retrieved on 2007-12-11.
Nobel Laureates in Economics |
|
George Akerlof / Michael Spence / Joseph E. Stiglitz (2001) · Daniel Kahneman / Vernon L. Smith (2002) · Robert F. Engle / Clive Granger (2003) · Finn E. Kydland / Edward C. Prescott (2004) · Robert Aumann / Thomas Schelling (2005) · Edmund Phelps (2006) · Leonid Hurwicz / Eric Maskin / Roger Myerson (2007) · Paul Krugman (2008)
|
|
Complete roster · 1969–1975 · 1976–2000 · 2001–present
|
|
National Medal of Science laureates |
|
Behavioral and social science |
|
1960s
|
1964: Roger Adams · Othmar H. Ammann · Theodosius Dobzhansky · Neal Elgar Miller
|
|
1980s
|
|
|
1990s
|
1990: Leonid Hurwicz · Patrick Suppes 1991: Robert W. Kates · George A. Miller 1992: Eleanor J. Gibson 1994: Robert K. Merton 1995: Roger N. Shepard 1996: Paul A. Samuelson 1997: William K. Estes 1998: William Julius Wilson 1999: Robert M. Solow
|
|
2000s
|
2000: Gary Becker 2001: George Bass 2003: R. Duncan Luce 2004: Kenneth Arrow 2005: Gordon H. Bower
|
|
|
|
Biological sciences |
|
1960s
|
1963: Cornelius Van Niel 1964: Marshall W. Nirenberg 1965: Francis P. Rous · George G. Simpson · Donald D. Van Slyke 1966: Edward F. Knipling · Fritz Albert Lipmann · William C. Rose · Sewall Wright 1967: Kenneth S. Cole · Harry F. Harlow · Michael Heidelberger · Alfred H. Sturtevant 1968: Horace Barker · Bernard B. Brodie · Detlev W. Bronk · Jay Lush · Burrhus Frederic Skinner 1969: Robert J. Huebner · Ernst Mayr
|
|
1970s
|
1970: Barbara McClintock · Albert B. Sabin 1973: Daniel I. Arnon · Earl W. Sutherland, Jr. 1974: Britton Chance · Erwin Chargaff · James V. Neel · James Augustine Hannon 1975: Hallowell Davis · Paul Gyorgy · Sterling Brown Hendricks · Orville lvin Vogel 1976: Roger C.L. Guillemin · Keith Roberts Porter · Efraim Racker · E. O. Wilson 1979: Robert H. Burris · Elizabeth C. Crosby · Arthur Kornberg · Severo Ochoa · Earl Reece Stadtman · George Ledyard Stebbins · Paul Alfred Weiss
|
|
1980s
|
1981: Philip Handler 1982: Seymour Benzer · Glenn W. Burton · Mildred Cohn 1983: Howard L. Bachrach · Paul Berg · Wendell L. Roelofs · Berta Scharrer 1986: Stanley Cohen · Donald A. Henderson · Vernon B. Mountcastle · George Emil Palade · Joan A. Steitz 1987: Michael E. Debakey · Theodor O. Diener · Harry Eagle · Har Gobind Khorana · Rita Levi-Montalcini 1988: Michael S. Brown · Stanley N. Cohen · Joseph L. Goldstein · Maurice R. Hilleman · Eric R. Kandel · Rosalyn S. Yalow 1989: Katherine Esau · Viktor Hamburger · Philip Leder · Joshua Lederberg · Roger W. Sperry · Harland G. Wood
|
|
1990s
|
1990: Baruj Benacerraf · Herbert W. Boyer · Daniel E. Koshland, Jr. · Edward B. Lewis · David G. Nathan · E. Donnall Thomas 1991: Mary Ellen Avery · G. Evelyn Hutchinson · Elvin A. Kabat · Salvador E. Luria · Paul A. Marks · Folke K Skoog · Paul C. Zamecnik 1992: Maxine Singer · Howard M. Temin 1993: Daniel Nathans · Salome G. Waelsch 1994: Thomas Eisner · Elizabeth F. Neufeld 1995: Alexander Rich 1996: Ruth Patrick 1997: James D. Watson · Robert A. Weinberg 1998: Bruce Ames · Janet Rowley 1999: David Baltimore · Jared Diamond · Lynn Margulis
|
|
2000s
|
2000: Nancy C. Andreasen · Peter H. Raven · Carl Woese 2001: Francisco J. Ayala · Mario R. Capecchi · Ann M. Graybiel · Gene E. Likens · Victor A. McKusick · Harold Varmus 2002: James E. Darnell · Evelyn M. Witkin 2003: J. Michael Bishop · Solomon H. Snyder · Charles Yanofsky 2004: Norman E. Borlaug · Phillip A. Sharp · Thomas E. Starzl 2005: Anthony Fauci · Torsten N. Wiesel 2006: Rita R. Colwell · Nina Fedoroff · Lubert Stryer
|
|
|
|
Chemistry |
|
1980s
|
1982: F. Albert Cotton · Gilbert Stork 1983: Roald Hoffmann · George C. Pimentel · Richard N. Zare 1986: Harry B. Gray · Yuan Tseh Lee · Carl S. Marvel · Frank H. Westheimer 1987: William S. Johnson · Walter H. Stockmayer · Max Tishler 1988: William O. Baker · Konrad E. Bloch · Elias J. Corey 1989: Richard B. Bernstein · Melvin Calvin · Rudoph A. Marcus · Harden M. McConnell
|
|
1990s
|
1990: Elkan Blout · Karl Folkers · John D. Roberts 1991: Ronald Breslow · Gertrude B. Elion · Dudley R. Herschbach · Glenn T. Seaborg 1992: Howard E. Simmons, Jr. 1993: Donald J. Cram · Norman Hackerman 1994: George S. Hammond 1995: Thomas Cech · Isabella L. Karle 1996: Norman Davidson 1997: Darleane C. Hoffman · Harold S. Johnston 1998: John W. Cahn · George M. Whitesides 1999: Stuart A. Rice · John Ross · Susan Solomon
|
|
2000s
|
2000: John D. Baldeschwieler · Ralph F. Hirschmann 2001: Ernest R. Davidson · Gabor A. Somorjai 2002: John I. Brauman 2004: Stephen J. Lippard 2006: Marvin H. Caruthers · Peter B. Dervan · Robert S. Langer
|
|
|
|
Engineering sciences |
|
1960s
|
|
|
1970s
|
1970: George E. Mueller 1973: Harold E. Edgerton · Richard T. Whitcomb 1974: Rudolf Kompfner · Ralph Brazelton Peck · Abel Wolman 1975: Manson Benedict · William Hayward Pickering · Frederick E. Terman · Wernher von Braun 1976: Morris Cohen · Peter C. Goldmark · Erwin Wilhelm Müller 1979: Emmett N. Leith · Raymond D. Mindlin · Robert N. Noyce · Earl R. Parker · Simon Ramo
|
|
1980s
|
1982: Edward H. Heinemann · Donald L. Katz 1983: William R. Hewlett · George M. Low · John G. Trump 1986: Hans Wolfgang Liepmann · T. Y. Lin · Bernard M. Oliver 1987: Robert B. Bird · H. Bolton Seed · Ernst Weber 1988: Daniel C. Drucker · Willis M. Hawkins · George W. Housner 1989: Harry George Drickamer · Herbert E. Grier
|
|
1990s
|
1990: Mildred S. Dresselhaus · Nick Holonyak Jr. 1991: George Heilmeier · Luna B. Leopold · H. Guyford Stever 1992: Calvin F. Quate · John Roy Whinnery 1993: Alfred Y. Cho 1994: Ray W. Clough 1995: Hermann A. Haus 1996: James L. Flanagan · C. Kumar N. Patel 1998: Eli Ruckenstein 1999: Kenneth N. Stevens
|
|
2000s
|
2000: Yuan-Cheng B. Fung 2001: Andreas Acrivos 2002: Leo Beranek 2003: John M. Prausnitz 2004: Edwin N. Lightfoot 2005: Jan D. Achenbach · Tobin J. Marks
|
|
|
|
Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences |
|
1960s
|
1963: Norbert Wiener 1964: Solomon Lefschetz · H. Marston Morse 1965: Oscar Zariski 1966: John Milnor 1967: Paul Cohen 1968: Jerzy Neyman 1969: William Feller
|
|
1970s
|
|
|
1980s
|
1982: Marshall Harvey Stone 1983: Herman Goldstine · Isadore Singer 1986: Peter Lax · Antoni Zygmund 1987: Raoul Bott · Michael Freedman 1988: Ralph E. Gomory · Joseph B. Keller 1989: Samuel Karlin · Saunders MacLane · Donald C. Spencer
|
|
1990s
|
1990: George F. Carrier · Stephen Cole Kleene · John McCarthy 1991: Alberto Calderón 1992: Allen Newell 1993: Martin Kruskal 1994: John Cocke 1995: Louis Nirenberg 1996: Richard M. Karp · Stephen Smale 1997: Shing-Tung Yau 1998: Cathleen Synge Morawetz 1999: Felix Browder · Ronald R. Coifman
|
|
2000s
|
2000: John Griggs Thompson · Karen K. Uhlenbeck 2001: Calyampudi R. Rao · Elias M. Stein 2002: James G. Glimm 2003: Carl R. de Boor 2004: Dennis P. Sullivan 2005: Bradley Efron 2006: Hyman Bass
|
|
|
|
Physical sciences |
|
1960s
|
|
|
1970s
|
1970: Robert H. Dicke · Allan R. Sandage · John C. Slater · John A. Wheeler · Saul Winstein 1973: Carl Djerassi · Maurice Ewing · Arie Jan Haagen-Smit · Vladimir Haensel · Frederick Seitz · Robert Rathbun Wilson 1974: Nicolaas Bloembergen · Paul Flory · William Alfred Fowler · Linus Carl Pauling · Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer 1975: Hans A. Bethe · Joseph Hirschfelder · Lewis Sarett · E. Bright Wilson · Chien-Shiung Wu 1976: Samuel Goudsmit · Herbert S. Gutowsky · Frederick Rossini · Verner Suomi · Henry Taube · George Uhlenbeck 1979: Richard P. Feynman · Herman Mark · Edward M. Purcell · John Sinfelt · Lyman Spitzer · Victor F. Weisskopf
|
|
1980s
|
1982: Philip W. Anderson · Yoichiro Nambu · Edward Teller · Charles H. Townes 1983: E. Margaret Burbidge · Maurice Goldhaber · Helmut Landsberg · Walter Munk · Frederick Reines · Bruno B. Rossi · J. Robert Schrieffer 1986: Solomon Buchsbaum · Horace Crane · Herman Feshbach · Robert Hofstadter · Chen Ning Yang 1987: Philip Abelson · Walter Elsasser · Paul C. Lauterbur · George Pake · James A. Van Allen 1988: D. Allan Bromley · Paul Ching-Wu Chu · Walter Kohn · Norman F. Ramsey · Jack Steinberger 1989: Arnold O. Beckman · Eugene Parker · Robert Sharp · Henry Stommel
|
|
1990s
|
1990: Allan M. Cormack · Edwin M. McMillan · Robert Pound · Roger Revelle 1991: Arthur L. Schawlow · Ed Stone · Steven Weinberg 1992: Eugene M. Shoemaker 1993: Val Fitch · Vera Rubin 1994: Albert Overhauser · Frank Press 1995: Hans Dehmelt · Peter Goldreich 1996: Wallace S. Broecker 1997: Marshall Rosenbluth · Martin Schwarzschild · George Wetherill 1998: Don L. Anderson · John N. Bahcall 1999: James Cronin · Leo Kadanoff
|
|
2000s
|
2000: Willis E. Lamb · Jeremiah P. Ostriker · Gilbert F. White 2001: Marvin L. Cohen · Raymond Davis Jr. · Charles Keeling 2002: Richard Garwin · W. Jason Morgan · Edward Witten 2003: G. Brent Dalrymple · Riccardo Giacconi 2004: Robert N. Clayton 2005: Ralph A. Alpher · Lonnie Thompson 2006: Daniel Kleppner
|
|
|
|