Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy

The Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy began after twelve editorial cartoons, most of which depicted the Islamic prophet Muhammad, were published in the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten on 30 September 2005. The newspaper announced that this publication was an attempt to contribute to the debate regarding criticism of Islam and self-censorship.

Danish Muslim organizations, who objected to the depictions, responded by holding public protests attempting to raise awareness of Jyllands-Posten's publication. The controversy deepened when further examples of the cartoons were reprinted in newspapers in more than fifty other countries.

This led to protests across the Muslim world, some of which escalated into violence with police firing on the crowds (resulting in more than 100 deaths, altogether),[1] including setting fire to the Danish Embassies in Syria, Lebanon and Iran, storming European buildings, and desecrating the Danish, Dutch, Norwegian and German flags in Gaza City. While a number of Muslim leaders called for protesters to remain peaceful, other Muslim leaders across the globe, including Mahmoud al-Zahar of Hamas, issued death threats.[2][3] Various groups, primarily in the Western world, responded by endorsing the Danish policies, including "Buy Danish" campaigns and other displays of support. Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen described the controversy as Denmark's worst international crisis since World War II.[4]

Some critics of the cartoons described them as Islamophobic or racist,[5] and argued that they are blasphemous to people of the Muslim faith, are intended to humiliate a Danish minority, or are a manifestation of ignorance about the history of Western imperialism. The imperialism referred to dates from colonialism to the current conflicts in the Middle East.[6]

Supporters have said that the cartoons illustrated an important issue in a period of Islamic terrorism and that their publication is a legitimate exercise of the right of free speech, explicitly tied to the issue of self-censorship. They claim that Muslims were not targeted in a discriminatory way since unflattering cartoons about other religions (or their leaders) are frequently printed.[7] They question whether some of the riots were spontaneous outpourings as they took place where no spontaneous demonstrations are allowed, and whether the images of Muhammad per se are offensive to Muslims, as thousands of illustrations of Muhammad have appeared in books by and for Muslims.[8]

Contents

Descriptions of the drawings

Main article: Descriptions of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons

Some of the cartoons can be difficult to understand fully for those who do not know certain Danish language metaphors or are not aware of individuals of note to the Danish public. Furthermore, certain cartoons have captions written in Danish, and one is written in Persian.

Timeline

Main article: Timeline of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy

Debate about self-censorship

Jyllands-Posten
Muhammad
cartoons controversy

Events and reactions

  • Timeline
  • Cartoon descriptions
  • Akkari-Laban Dossier
  • Newspaper Reprints
  • International Reactions
  • Opinions
  • Economic & human costs

Primary parties involved

On 17 September 2005, the Danish newspaper Politiken ran an article under the headline "Dyb angst for kritik af islam"[9] ("Profound anxiety about criticism of Islam"). The article discussed the difficulty encountered by the writer Kåre Bluitgen, who was initially unable to find an illustrator who was prepared to work with Bluitgen on his children's book Koranen og profeten Muhammeds liv (English: The Qur'an and the life of the Prophet Muhammad ISBN 87-638-0049-7). Three artists declined Bluitgen's proposal before one agreed to assist anonymously. According to Bluitgen:

One [artist declined], with reference to the murder in Amsterdam of the film director Theo van Gogh, while another [declined, citing the attack on] the lecturer at the Carsten Niebuhr Institute in Copenhagen.[9]

In October 2004, a lecturer at the Niebuhr institute at the University of Copenhagen had been assaulted by five assailants who opposed his reading of the Qur'an to non-Muslims during a lecture.[10]

The refusal of the first three artists to participate was seen as evidence of self-censorship and led to much debate in Denmark, with other examples for similar reasons soon emerging. Comedian Frank Hvam declared that he would (hypothetically) dare to urinate on the Bible on television, but not on the Qur'an.[11][12]

Publication of the cartoons

On 30 September 2005, the daily newspaper Jyllands-Posten ("The Jutland Post") published an article entitled "Muhammeds ansigt"[13] ("The face of Muhammad"). The article consisted of twelve cartoons (of which only some depicted Muhammad) and an explanatory text, in which Flemming Rose, Jyllands-Posten's culture editor, commented:

The modern, secular society is rejected by some Muslims. They demand a special position, insisting on special consideration of their own religious feelings. It is incompatible with contemporary democracy and freedom of speech, where you must be ready to put up with insults, mockery and ridicule. It is certainly not always attractive and nice to look at, and it does not mean that religious feelings should be made fun of at any price, but that is of minor importance in the present context. [...] we are on our way to a slippery slope where no-one can tell how the self-censorship will end. That is why Morgenavisen Jyllands-Posten has invited members of the Danish editorial cartoonists union to draw Muhammad as they see him. [...]

– [13]

After the invitation from Jyllands-Posten to about forty different artists to give their interpretation of Muhammad, twelve caricaturists chose to respond with a drawing each. Many also commented on the surrounding self-censorship debate. Three of these twelve cartoons were illustrated by Jyllands-Posten's own staff, including the "bomb in turban" and "niqābs" cartoons.

On 19 February, Rose explained his intent further In the Washington Post:

The cartoonists treated Islam the same way they treat Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism and other religions. And by treating Muslims in Denmark as equals they made a point: We are integrating you into the Danish tradition of satire because you are part of our society, not strangers. The cartoons are including, rather than excluding, Muslims.

– [12]

In October 2005, the Danish daily Politiken polled thirty-one of the forty-three members of the Danish cartoonist association. Twenty-three said they would be willing to draw Muhammad. One had doubts, one would not be willing because of fear of possible reprisals and six cartoonists would not be willing because they respected the Muslim ban on depicting Muhammad.[14]

Danish Prime Minister's meeting refusal

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Events since 2001

September 11, 2001 attacks
War in Afghanistan (2001–present)
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Having received petitions from Danish imams, eleven ambassadors from Muslim-majority countries asked for a meeting with Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen on 12 October 2005, in order to discuss what they perceived as an "on-going smearing campaign in Danish public circles and media against Islam and Muslims". In a letter, the ambassadors mentioned not only the issue of the Muhammad cartoons, but also a recent indictment against Radio Holger,[15] and statements by MP Louise Frevert[16] and the Minister of Culture, Brian Mikkelsen.[17] It concluded:

We deplore these statements and publications and urge Your Excellency’s government to take all those responsible to task under law of the land in the interest of inter-faith harmony, better integration and Denmark's overall relations with the Muslim world.

– [18]

The government answered the ambassadors' request for a meeting with Rasmussen with a letter only: "The freedom of expression has a wide scope and the Danish government has no means of influencing the press. However, Danish legislation prohibits acts or expressions of blasphemous or discriminatory nature. The offended party may bring such acts or expressions to court, and it is for the courts to decide in individual cases."[19]

The ambassadors maintained that they had never asked for Jyllands-Posten to be prosecuted; possibly, the non-technical phrase of the letter, "to take NN to task under law", meant something like "to hold NN responsible within the limits of the law".[20] Rasmussen replied: "Even a non-judicial intervention against Jyllands-Posten would be impossible within our system".[21]

The Egyptian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Aboul Gheit, wrote several letters to the Prime Minister of Denmark and to the United Nations Secretary-General explaining that they did not want the Prime Minister to prosecute Jyllands-Posten; they only wanted "an official Danish statement underlining the need for and the obligation of respecting all religions and desisting from offending their devotees to prevent an escalation which would have serious and far-reaching consequences".[22] Subsequently, the Egyptian government played a leading role in defusing the issue in the Middle East.[23]

The refusal to meet the ambassadors has been criticized by the Danish political opposition, twenty-two Danish ex-ambassadors, and former Minister of Foreign Affairs, Uffe Ellemann-Jensen.[24]

Judicial investigation of Jyllands-Posten

On 27 October 2005, a number of Muslim organizations filed a complaint with the Danish police claiming that Jyllands-Posten had committed an offence under section 140 and 266b of the Danish Criminal Code.[25]

On 6 January 2006, the Regional Public Prosecutor in Viborg discontinued the investigation as he found no basis for concluding that the cartoons constituted a criminal offence. His reason is based on his finding that the article concerns a subject of public interest and, further, on Danish case law which extends editorial freedom to journalists when it comes to a subject of public interest. He stated that, in assessing what constitutes an offence, the right to freedom of speech must be taken into consideration. He stated that the right to freedom of speech must be exercised with the necessary respect for other human rights, including the right to protection against discrimination, insult and degradation, but no apparent violation of the law had occurred.[25] In a new hearing, the Director of Public Prosecutors in Denmark agreed.[29]

Danish Imams tour the Middle East

Main article: Akkari-Laban dossier

Two imams who had been granted sanctuary in Denmark, dissatisfied with the reaction of the Danish Government and Jyllands-Posten, created a forty-three-page document entitled "Dossier about championing the prophet Muhammad peace be upon him."[30] This consisted of several letters from Muslim organisations explaining their case including allegations of the mistreatment of Danish Muslims, citing the Jyllands-Posten cartoons (including the false claim that said publication was a government-run newspaper) and also supplementing the following causes of "pain and torment" for the authors:

  1. Pictures from another Danish newspaper, Weekendavisen, which they called "even more offending" (than the original twelve cartoons);
  2. Hate-mail pictures and letters that the dossier's authors alleged were sent to Muslims in Denmark, said to be indicative of the rejection of Muslims by the Danish;
  3. A televised interview discussing Islam with Dutch member of parliament and Islam critic Hirsi Ali, who had received the Freedom Prize "for her work to further freedom of speech and the rights of women" from the Danish Liberal Party represented by Anders Fogh Rasmussen.

Appended to the dossier were multiple clippings from Jyllands-Posten, multiple clippings from Weekendavisen, some clippings from Arabic-language papers and three additional images which also had no connection with Denmark.

The imams claimed that the three additional images were sent anonymously by mail to Muslims who were participating in an online debate on Jyllands-Posten,[31] and were apparently included to illustrate the perceived atmosphere of Islamophobia in which they lived.[32] On 1 February BBC World incorrectly reported that one of them had been published in Jyllands-Posten.[33] This image was later found[34] to be a wire-service photo of a contestant at a French pig-squealing contest.[35] One of the other two additional images (a photo) portrayed a Muslim being mounted by a dog while praying, and the other (a cartoon) portrayed Muhammad as a demonic paedophile. Equipped with the dossier, the two imams circulated it throughout the Muslim world, presenting their case to many influential religious and political leaders, asking for support.[36]

The dossier[30] contained such statements as the following:

The inclusion in the dossier of the cartoons from Weekendavisen was possibly a misunderstanding, as these were more likely intended as parodies of the pompousness of Jyllands-Posten's cartoons than as comments on Muhammad in their own right.[37] They consist of reproductions of works such as the Mona Lisa (caption: For centuries, a previously unknown society has known that this is a painting of the Prophet, and guarded this secret. The back page's anonymous artist is doing everything he can to reveal this secret in his contribution. He has since then been forced to go underground, fearing for the wrath of a crazy albino imam). This is an obvious parody of the Da Vinci Code.

At a 6 December 2005 summit of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, with many heads of state in attendance, the dossier was handed around on the sidelines first,[38] and eventually an official communiqué was issued, demanding that the United Nations impose international sanctions upon Denmark.[39]

Jyllands-Posten response

In response to protests from Muslim groups, Jyllands-Posten published two open letters on its website, each of them in a Danish and an Arabic version.[40] The second letter, dated 30 January 2006, also has an English version:[41]

In our opinion, the 12 drawings were sober. They were not intended to be offensive, nor were they at variance with Danish law, but they have indisputably offended many Muslims for which we apologize.

On 26 February, the cartoonist who had drawn the "bomb in turban" picture, the most controversial of the twelve, explained:

There are interpretations of it [the drawing] that are incorrect. The general impression among Muslims is that it is about Islam as a whole. It is not. It is about certain fundamentalist aspects, that of course are not shared by everyone. But the fuel for the terrorists’ acts stem from interpretations of Islam. [...] if parts of a religion develop in a totalitarian and aggressive direction, then I think you have to protest. We did so under the other 'isms.

– [42]

Reprinting in other newspapers

Further information: List of newspapers that reprinted Jyllands-Posten's Muhammad cartoons

In 2005, the Muhammad cartoons controversy received only minor media attention outside of Denmark. Six of the cartoons were first reprinted by the Egyptian newspaper El Fagr on 17 October 2005,[43][44] along with an article strongly denouncing them, but publication did not provoke any condemnations or other reactions from religious or government authorities. Between October 2005 and the end of January 2006, examples of the cartoons were reprinted in major European newspapers from the Netherlands, Germany, Scandinavia, Belgium and France. Very soon after, as protests grew, there were further re-publications around the globe, but primarily in continental Europe.

Notable for a lack of republication of the cartoons were most major newspapers in Canada,[45] the USA[46] and the United Kingdom,[47] where editorials covered the story without including them. Several newspapers were closed and editors fired or arrested for their decision or intention to re-publish the cartoons, including the shutting down of a 60 year old Malaysian newspaper permanently.

Economic and social consequences

Main article: Economic and social consequences of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
Map shows a colored matrix of republication (blue) and violence (red)

A consumer boycott was organised in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait (led by MP Waleed AlـTabtabaie[48]), and other Middle East countries.[49] For weeks, numerous demonstrations and other protests against the cartoons took place worldwide. Rumours spread via SMS and word-of-mouth.[50] On 4 February 2006, the Danish and Norwegian embassies in Syria were set ablaze, although with no injuries. In Beirut, the Danish Embassy was set on fire,[51] leaving one protester dead.[52] The Danish embassy in Teheran was also torched.[53] Altogether, at least 139 people were killed in protests, most due to police firing on the crowds,[54] mainly in Nigeria, Libya, Pakistan and Afghanistan.

Several death threats and reward offers for killing those responsible for the cartoons were made,[55] resulting in the cartoonists going into hiding.[56] Four ministers have resigned amidst the controversy, among them Roberto Calderoli and Laila Freivalds.[57] In India, Haji Yaqoob Qureishi, a minister in the Uttar Pradesh state government, announced in February 2006 a cash reward of Rs 51 crore (roughly about US$11 million) for anyone who beheads "the Danish cartoonist" who caricatured Mohammad.[58][59][60] Subsequently, a case was filed against Haji Yaqoob Qureishi in the Lucknow district court in Uttar Pradesh and demands were made for his dismissal by eminent Muslim scholars in New Delhi.[61] Condoleezza Rice, Secretary of State of the United States accused Iran and Syria of organizing many of the recent protests in Iran, Syria and Lebanon.[62]

The Western media dubbed the series of demonstrations organized in February 2006 by certain Middle Eastern governments and radical clerics as the "Cartoon Intifada".[63]

On 9 September 2006, the BBC News reported that the Muslim boycott of Danish goods had reduced Denmark's total exports by 15.5% between February and June. This was attributed to a decline in Middle East exports by approximately 50%. "The cost to Danish businesses was around 134 million euros ($170m), when compared with the same period last year, the statistics showed."[64] However, the Guardian newspaper in the UK also reported, "While Danish milk products were dumped in the Middle East, fervent rightwing Americans started buying Bang & Olufsen stereos and Lego. In the first quarter of this year Denmark’s exports to the US soared 17%."[65]

Further police investigations (2006 - 2007)

Anniversary flare-up (September 2006)

One year after the publication of the original cartoons, a video surfaced showing members of the Danish People's Party's youth wing engaged in a contest of drawing pictures that insult Muhammad. Publicity surrounding the contest led to renewed tension between the Islamic world and Denmark,[80] with the OIC and many countries weighing in. The Danish government condemned the youths, and those who were depicted in the video went into hiding after receiving death threats.

Two weeks into this episode, a Danish artists' group, "Defending Denmark", claimed responsibility for the video and said it had infiltrated the Danish People's Party Youth for 18 months claiming "to document (their) extreme right wing associations".[81]

A few days later a new episode surfaced, when a member of the Social-liberal youth movement stated, that members of the movement had also drawn pictures of Muhammad during a weekend meeting. Unlike the Danish People's Party Youth's drawings, this episode was not condoned by the youth movement, but was done by individuals.[82]

All four videos of the controversy can be seen here.

February 2008 death threat and resultant reprinting

On 12 February 2008, Danish police arrested three men (two Tunisians and one Danish national originally from Morocco) suspected of planning to assassinate Kurt Westergaard, the cartoonist who drew the Bomb in the Turban cartoon. Shortly afterwards, the Dane was released without charge; the two Tunisians were not charged either, but expelled to Tunisia. Despite this, Westergaard has since been under police protection. He has said he is angry that a "perfectly normal everyday activity [drawing political cartoons] which I used to do by the thousand was abused to set off such madness."[83][84]

The next day, 13 February 2008, Jyllands-Posten, and many other Danish newspapers including Politiken and Berlingske Tidende, reprinted Westergaard's Bomb in the Turban cartoon, as a statement of commitment to freedom of speech.[85] The liberal newspaper Politiken had been critical of the original publication of the cartoons, but reprinted this one now as a gesture of solidarity in the face of a specific threat.[86]

In Denmark, some public disturbances with burnt-out cars[87] and a school set ablaze[88] has followed these events, but the police are unsure if it is directly related to the cartoons controversy or the fact that the two Tunisians were subsequently sentenced to deportation without a trial.[89][90] Other sources claim the riots in the Nørrebro district of Copenhagen, which started before the arrests, were wholly unrelated to the cartoons controversy, and were rather set off by police harassment of ethnic minorities in areas of Copenhagen.[91] Some disturbances had occurred already in the days preceding the arrests.[92] Peaceful demonstrations were held in Copenhagen after Friday prayers, with the flags of Hizb ut-Tahrir prominent.[93]

On 19 February 2008, "Egypt banned editions of four foreign newspapers including the New York-based Wall Street Journal and Britain's The Observer for reprinting the controversial Danish cartoons criticizing the Prophet Muhammad".[94] The events culminated on 2 June 2008 with an attempt to blow up the Danish embassy in Islamabad.[95]

Danish Troops in Afghanistan Threatened

In October 2008, Ekstra Bladet published excerpts from an interview with Taliban spokesperson Qari Yousuf Ahmadi [96] [97] saying Danish troops in Oruzgan Province are a "primary target" of the Taliban because of the cartoon issue, adding the Danes would be forced to leave Afghanistan. [98]

Opinions and issues

See also: Opinions on the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
See also: International reactions to the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy

Danish journalistic tradition

Freedom of speech was guaranteed in law by the Danish Constitution in 1849, as it is today by The Constitutional Act of Denmark, of 5 June 1953.[99] It is defended vigorously. It was suspended during the German occupation of Denmark in World War II.[100] Freedom of expression is also protected by the European Convention on Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

The Danish newspapers are privately owned and independent from the government, and Danish freedom of expression is quite far-reaching, even by Western standards. In the past, this has provoked official protests from Germany about printing neo-nazi propaganda, and from Russia for "solidarity with terrorists."[101] The organization Reporters Without Borders ranks Denmark at the top of its Worldwide Press Freedom Index for 2005.[102]

Religion is often portrayed in ways that some other societies may consider illegal blasphemy.[103][104][105] While Jyllands-Posten has published satirical cartoons depicting Christian figures,[106] it also rejected unsolicited surreal cartoons in 2003 which depicted Jesus,[107] opening them to accusations of a double standard.[108] In February 2006, Jyllands-Posten also refused to publish Holocaust denial cartoons offered by an Iranian newspaper.[109][110] Six of the less controversial entries were later published by Dagbladet Information, after the editors consulted the main rabbi in Copenhagen,[111] and three cartoons were in fact later reprinted in Jyllands-Posten.[112][113] After the competition had finished, Jyllands-Posten also reprinted the winning and runner-up cartoons.[114]

Muslim tradition

Aniconism

Main articles: Aniconism in Islam and Depictions of Muhammad
"Muhammad" in Ottoman styled Islamic Thuluth calligraphy.

Owing to the traditions of aniconism in Islam, the majority of art concerning Muhammad is calligraphic in nature. The Qur'an condemns idolatry, and pictoral forms are seen as ostensibly close to idol worship. These are found in Ahadith [plural of Hadith]: "Ibn ‘Umar reported Allah’s Messenger (pbuh) having said: Those who paint pictures would be punished on the Day of Resurrection and it would be said to them: Breathe soul into what you have created."[115][116][117][118]

Muhammad rededicating the Kaaba Black Stone. Found in the Jami al-Tawarikh by Rashid Al-Din, at the University of Edinburgh library; c. 1315.

Within Muslim communities, views have varied regarding pictorial representations. Shi'a Islam has been generally tolerant of pictorial representations of human figures, including Muhammad.[119] Contemporary Sunni Islam generally forbids any pictorial representation of Muhammad,[120] but has had periods allowing depictions of Muhammad's face covered with a veil or as a featureless void emanating light. A few contemporary interpretations of Islam, such as some adherents of Wahhabism and Salafism, are entirely aniconistic and condemn pictorial representations of any kind. The Taliban, while in power in Afghanistan, banned television, photographs and images in newspapers and destroyed paintings including frescoes in the vicinity of the Buddhas of Bamyan.[121]

Prohibition against insulting Muhammad

In Muslim societies, insulting Muhammad is considered one of the gravest of all crimes. Some interpretations of the Shariah, in particular the relatively fringe Salafi (Wahabi) group, state that any insult to Muhammad warrants death.[122]

However, the Organization of the Islamic Conference has denounced calls for the death of the Danish cartoonists. OIC's Secretary General Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu stated in a press release:

The Secretary General appeals to the Muslims to stay calm and peaceful in the wake of sacrilegious depiction of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) which has deeply hurt their feelings. He has stated that Islam being the religion of tolerance, mercy and peace teaches them to defend their faith through democratic and legal means.[123]

Associating Islam with terrorism

Many Muslims have explained their anti-cartoon stance as against insulting pictures and not so much as against pictures in general. According to the BBC:

It is the satirical intent of the cartoonists and the association of the Prophet with terrorism, that is so offensive to the vast majority of Muslims.

– [124]

Why is the insult so deeply felt by some Muslims? Of course, there is the prohibition on images of Muhammad. But one cartoon, showing the Prophet wearing a turban shaped as a bomb with a burning fuse, extends the caricature of Muslims as terrorists to Muhammad. In this image, Muslims see a depiction of Islam, its prophet and Muslims in general as terrorists. This will certainly play into a widespread perception among Muslims across the world that many in the West harbour a hostility towards – or fear of – Islam and Muslims.

– [125]

Islamism and accusations of xenophobia

Main articles: Muslims in Western Europe and Multiculturalism

Fundamentalist Islam has recently been characterized as a problem in Europe,[126][127] while disillusionment with multiculturalism is on the rise in Denmark.[128] This was further fuelled by Mullah Krekar stating that "the number of Muslims is expanding like mosquitoes."[129][130] The UNCHR Special Rapporteur, on the other hand, saw xenophobia and racism in Europe as the root of the controversy,[131] particularly singling out Denmark.[132][133][134]

Allegations of "agendas"

Agendas in the West

Some commentators see the publications of the cartoons and the riots that took place in response, as part of a coordinated effort to show Muslims and Islam in a bad light, thus influencing public opinion in the West in aid of various political projects, for example to support further military intervention in the Middle East.[135][136]

The controversy was used to highlight a supposedly irreconcilable rift between Europeans and Islam - as the journalist Andrew Mueller put it: "I am concerned that the ridiculous, disproportionate reaction to some unfunny sketches in an obscure Scandinavian newspaper may confirm that ... Islam and the West are fundamentally irreconcilable"[137] - and many demonstrations in the Middle-East were encouraged by the regimes there for their own purposes. Different groups used this tactic for different purposes, some more explicitly than others: for example anti-immigrant groups, nationalists, feminists, classical liberals and national governments.[138]

Muslim critics have also accused the West, in particular the EU, of double standards in adopting laws that outlaw Holocaust denial. Denmark, along with Britain and Sweden, have particularly libertarian traditions concerning Holocaust denial and pressed for wording in a recent EU legislation that would avoid criminalizing debates about the Holocaust and would ensure that films and plays about the Holocaust would not be censored.[139]

Alleged Zionist agenda

Among others,[140] Iran's supreme leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei blamed a "Zionist conspiracy" for the row over the cartoons.[141] The Palestinian envoy to Washington alleged the Likud party concocted distribution of Muhammad caricatures worldwide in a bid to create a clash between the West and the Muslim world.[142]

Islamist or Middle East regime agendas

Other commentators see Islamists jockeying for influence[143] both in Europe[144] and the Islamic Ummah,[145] who tried (unsuccessfully) to widen the split between the USA and Europe, and simultaneously bridge the split between the Sunnis and the Shia.[146]

Regimes in the Middle East have been accused of taking advantage of the controversy, and adding to it, in order to demonstrate their Islamic credentials, distracting from their failures by setting up an external enemy,[147][148][149] and "(using) the cartoons [...] as a way of showing that the expansion of freedom and democracy in their countries would lead inevitably to the denigration of Islam."[150] Mahmoud Ahmadinejad announced a Holocaust Conference, supported[151] by the OIC, to uncover what he called the "myth" used to justify the creation of Israel.[152] Ahmadinejad started voicing doubt about the veracity of the holocaust at the same[153] OIC conference in Mecca that served to spread the Akkari-Laban dossier to leaders of the Muslim world.[154]

Russian agenda

A few people in the intelligence community have laid the blame for the controversy at the feet of Russia, alleging that the publication of the cartoon and subsequent protests were examples of active measures by Russian intelligence agencies, aimed at fomenting tensions between the Islamic world and the West. Proponents of this theory include historian Thomas Boghardt at the International Spy Museum. He cites former KGB general Oleg Kalugin as noting that Jyllands-Posten editor Flemming Rose spent much time in Moscow and "published a spate of obviously government-sponsored, anti-Chechen articles." Similarly, famed FSB defector Alexander Litvinenko noted that Rose is "married to the daughter of an ex-KGB officer." Peter Earnest, a former CIA clandestine service officer in the Middle East, also remarked about the suspicious connections that the Russian secret services had to the incident.[155]

Alleged political correctness

Critics of political correctness see the cartoon controversy as a sign that attempts at judicial codification of such concepts as respect, tolerance and offense have backfired on their advocates, "leaving them without a leg to stand on"[156] and in retreat again:

The issue will almost certainly lead to a revisiting of the lamentable laws against "hate speech" in Europe, and with any luck to a debate on whether these laws are more likely to destroy public harmony than encourage it. Muslim activists are finding out why getting into a negative-publicity fight is as inadvisable as wrestling with a pig: You get dirty and the pig enjoys it.

– [157]

In popular culture

The South Park episodes Cartoon Wars Part I and Part II parodied this event.

Comparable references

Main article: Freedom of speech versus blasphemy

Numerous comparisons have been offered in public discourse comparing earlier controversies over freedom of speech and art with the controversy that surrounded the Jyllands-Posten cartoons. Some examples include:

And a later controversy:

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Cartoon Body Count", Web (2006-03-02). 
  2. ↑ "Arson and Death Threats as Muhammad Caricature Controversy Escalates". Spiegel online (2006-02-04). Retrieved on 2007-04-26.
  3. ↑ "Embassies torched in cartoon fury". CNN.com (2006-02-05). Retrieved on 2007-04-26.
  4. ↑ "70,000 gather for violent Pakistan cartoons protest", Times Online (2006-02-15). 
  5. ↑ Cartoons of Prophet Met With Outrage Washington Post. "Kuwait called the cartoons "despicable racism."
    ° Blasphemous Cartoons Trigger Muslim Fury Iran Daily. "Although Jyllands-Posten maintains that the drawings were an exercise in free speech, many consider them as provocative, racist and Islamophobic"
    ° Muslim cartoon row timeline BBC online "Egyptian newspaper al-Fagr reprints some of the cartoons, describing them as a "continuing insult" and a "racist bomb".
  6. ↑ "Islam and globanalisation", Al Ahram (2006-03-23). 
  7. ↑ "The limits to free speech - Cartoon wars", The Economist (2006-02-09). 
  8. ↑ AMIR TAHERI DEBATES TARIQ RAMADAN Amsterdam Forum, Radio Netherlands 11 March 2006
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Dyb angst for kritik af islam", Politiken (2005-09-17).  (Danish)
  10. ↑ "Overfaldet efter Koran-læsning", TV 2 (Denmark) (2004-10-09).  (Danish)
  11. ↑ "Debat: Bangebuks versus Kulturminister, 3rd section, Bøger, p.7", Weekendavisen (2005-10-07).  (Danish)
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "Why I Published Those Cartoons", WashingtonPost (2005-02-19). 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Rose, Flemming (2005-09-30). "Muhammeds ansigt", Jyllands-Posten.  (Danish)
  14. ↑ "Profetens ansigt: Ingen selvcensur blandt tegnere". Politiken 20. oktober 2005, 2. sektion, side 3
  15. ↑ "Denmark targets extremist media", BBC News (2005-08-17). 
  16. ↑ (Danish) "Ordene på Louise Freverts hjemmeside", TV2 (Denmark) (2005-09-30). 
  17. ↑ (Danish) "Mikkelsen blæser til ny kulturkamp", TV2 (Denmark) (2005-09-25). 
  18. ↑ Official letter from the 12 ambassadorsPDF (74.5 KB)
  19. ↑ Official response to ambassadors from A.F.RasmussenPDF (545 KB)
  20. ↑ "Ambassadør-breve blev forvekslet i Politiken", Politiken (2006-02-20). 
  21. ↑ (Danish) "»Oversættelsen er helt uvæsentlig«", Politiken (2006-02-21). 
  22. ↑ (Danish) "Egypten gav Fogh mulighed for forsoning", Politiken (2006-02-22). 
  23. ↑ (Danish) "Egypten stod bag profetkampagne", Politiken (2006-02-17). 
  24. ↑ (Danish) "Danish ambassadors criticise Andersen Fogh Rasmussen", Politiken (2005-12-20). 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 "Official Response by the Danish Government to the UN Special Rapporteurs" (PDF), Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark (2006-01-24).  (Danish)
  26. ↑ "§140 of the Danish criminal code", Juraportalen Themis.  (Danish)
  27. ↑ "Den glemte paragraf", dr.dk (2006-02-16).  (Danish)
  28. ↑ "§266b of the Danish criminal code", Juraportalen Themis.  (Danish)
  29. ↑ "Decision on possible criminal proceedings" (PDF), Rigsadvokaten (2006-03-15). 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 "Photocopy of the Imam's dossier", Politiken. 
  31. ↑ "Sådan gik chatten - Bjerager og Akkari", TV2 (2006-03-08).  See question asked by xaria and answered by Akkari (Danish)
  32. ↑ "What the Muhammad cartoons portray", BBC (2006-02-09). 
  33. ↑ "Imam viste falske billeder", Jyllands-Posten (2006-01-30).  (Danish)
  34. ↑ A clash of rights and responsibilities, BBC
  35. ↑ Duo hogs top prize in pig-squealing contest
  36. ↑ Alienated Danish Muslims Sought Help from Arabs
  37. ↑ Trossamfund angriber Muhammed-satire i Weekendavisen (Danish)
  38. ↑ "How a meeting of leaders in Mecca set off the cartoon wars around the world", The Independent (2006-02-10). 
  39. ↑ "Muslims seek UN resolution over Danish prophet cartoons", IslamOnLine (2006-01-29). 
  40. ↑ Jyllands-Posten's letter in ArabicPDF (18.2 KB) (Arabic)
  41. ↑ "Honourable Fellow Citizens of the Muslim World", Jyllands-Posten (2006-01-30). 
  42. ↑ "Jyllands-Posten: Bomben's Ophavsmand", Jyllands-Posten (2006-02-26).  (Danish)
  43. ↑ "Danes Blame Imams for Satire Escalation, Survey Says (Update1)", Bloomberg (2005-02-10). 
  44. ↑ "No Danish Treatment for an Egyptian Newspaper", FreedomForEgyptians (2006-02-08). 
  45. ↑ Editors weigh free press, respect for religious views
  46. ↑ "A media dilemma: The rest of a story", Philadelphia Inquirer (2006-02-04). 
  47. ↑ "US, British media tread carefully in cartoon furor", Christian Science Monitor (2006-02-06). 
  48. ↑ Reuters [1]
  49. ↑ "The Inciters and the Incited", Der Spiegel International Edition (2006-02-10). 
  50. ↑ "E-Mail, Blogs, Text Messages Propel Anger Over Images", Washington Post (2006-02-09). 
  51. ↑ "Protesters burn consulate over cartoons", CNN (2006-02-05). 
  52. ↑ "Protestors killed as global furor over cartoons escalates", Middle East Times (2006-02-06). 
  53. ↑ "Why Democracy? - Bloody Cartoons", BBC. 
  54. ↑ "Cartoon Body Count", Web (2006-03-02). 
  55. ↑ "Another Bounty on 12 Cartoonists’ Heads". Agora (2006-03-12).
  56. ↑ TimesOnline: Danish cartoonists fear for their lives
  57. ↑ "Libya suspends minister over riot", BBC News (2006-03-21). 
  58. ↑ Rs 51-crore reward for Danish cartoonist’s head, says UP Minister ($10 million, India)
  59. ↑ The Tribune, Chandigarh, India - Nation
  60. ↑ Rs 51-cr toon bounty sparks row-India-The Times of India
  61. ↑ AsiaMedia:: INDIA: Court nod sought for case against Yaqoob
  62. ↑ Rice: Iran, Syria Behind Cartoon Riots by CBS News
  63. ↑ http://www.townhall.com/opinion/columns/cliffordmay/2006/02/09/185968.html The Cartoon Intifada by Clifford D. May
  64. ↑ "Cartoons row hits Danish exports". BBC News (2006-09-09). Retrieved on 2006-09-09.
  65. ↑ How one of the biggest rows of modern times helped Danish exports to prosper The Guardian | Guardian Unlimited
  66. ↑ Inside al Qaeda by Mohamed Sifaoui
  67. ↑ "Video footage of the French TV documentary", TV2 (2006-03-23). 
  68. ↑ "Video footage of Abu Laban", Denmark radio (2006-03-25). 
  69. ↑ "Tvivl om oversættelse af Akkari" (in da), Denmark radio (2006-03-23). 
  70. ↑ "Danish Imam Reveals `Martyr Action' Plot, Danmarks Radio Says", Bloomberg (2006-03-25). 
  71. ↑ "Danish police to probe imam's bomb threats", Reuters (2006-03-23). 
  72. ↑ "Selbstmord nach versuchtem Angriff auf Chefredakteur der "Welt"", Der Spiegel (5 May 2006). .
  73. ↑ "Up to 30,000 mourn Pakistani who died in German jail", Reuters/Yahoo (13 May 2006). .
  74. ↑ "Lebanon arrests fourth suspect in German bomb case". 
  75. ↑ "Suspects behind failed German train bombings motivated Prophet Muhammad cartoons: investigator". 
  76. ↑ "Bahn-Anschläge schon zur Fußball-WM geplant". 
  77. ↑ "9 arrested by Denmark in reported terror plot". 
  78. ↑ Casciani, Dominic (2007-07-19). "The angry young men jailed over protest", BBC News, BBC. Retrieved on 2007-09-29. 
  79. ↑ "Newspaper editor was bomb target", Copenhagen Post (2007-10-04). 
  80. ↑ "Anti-Muslim video sparks new outrage against Denmark". 
  81. ↑ "Web sites remove videos mocking Muhammad". 
  82. ↑ Stampe, Zenia (2006-10-20). "Et døgn med Muhammed" (in Danish), Politiken. Retrieved on 2008-11-08. 
  83. ↑ "Murder plot against Danish cartoonist", Jyllands-Posten (2008-02-11). 
  84. ↑ BBC NEWS World | Europe | Danish Muhammad cartoon reprinted
  85. ↑ "Danish Muhammad cartoon reprinted", BBC News. Retrieved on 2008-02-13. 
  86. ↑ "Danish papers republish Prophet cartoon", Reuters UK (2008-02-13). Retrieved on 2008-02-14. 
  87. ↑ "Brande og uroligheder bredte sig til flere byer" (in Danish), Politiken (2008-02-15). Retrieved on 2008-02-15. 
  88. ↑ "Ni klasseværelser brændte ned på én nat" (in Danish), Politiken (2008-02-15). Retrieved on 2008-02-15. 
  89. ↑ "Mistænkt i Muhammedsag løsladt igen" (in Danish), Politiken (2008-02-12). Retrieved on 2008-02-15. 
  90. ↑ Harrison, Frances (2008-02-15). "Danish Muslims in cartoon protest", BBC News. Retrieved on 2008-02-16. 
  91. ↑ "Politidirektør undersøger sag om politivold" (in Danish), Politiken (2008-02-15). Retrieved on 2008-02-16. 
  92. ↑ "Fem kræves fængslet efter uro i København" (in Danish), Politiken (2008-02-14). Retrieved on 2008-02-15. 
  93. ↑ BBC NEWS World | Europe | Danish Muslims in cartoon protest
  94. ↑ Editor and Publisher article Egypt Bans Four Foreign Newspapers Over Republication of Anti-Prophet Cartoons published 19 February 2008
  95. ↑ Blast rocks Danish embassy in high-security area Dawn.com
  96. ↑ Taleban truer Danmark ekstrabladet.dk, 20 October 08, retrieved 25 October 2008
  97. ↑ Google translation of "Taleban truer Danmark", retrieved 25 October 2008
  98. ↑ Taleban targets Denmark politiken.dk, 20 October 08, retrieved 25 October 2008
  99. ↑ The Danish constitutionPDF (120 KB)
  100. ↑ Helle Sejersen. "Dagbladene under besættelsen ((The newspapers during the occupation)". Historisk Samling fra Besættelsestiden 1940-1945. Retrieved on 2008-08-02.
  101. ↑ "Chechen rebels seek talks with Moscow", BBC News (28 October 2002). 
  102. ↑ "World Press Freedom Index, 2005". Reporters Without Borders.
  103. ↑ Painting by Jens Jørgen Thorsen
  104. ↑ Danish movie Jesus vender tilbage on Internet Movie Database
  105. ↑ Jesus vender tilbage plot description in the New York Times
  106. ↑ Drawing from Jyllands-Posten
  107. ↑ Zieler, Resurrection
  108. ↑ Gwladys Fouché (6 February 2006). "Danish paper rejected Jesus cartoons". The Guardian.
  109. ↑ "No Holocaust Cartoons in Morgenavisen Jyllands-Posten". Jyllands-Posten (2006-02-09). Retrieved on 2006-09-17.
  110. ↑ Danish paper refuses Holocaust cartoons, The Scotsman, 9 February 2006
  111. ↑ "Paper reprints Holocaust cartoons". BBC News (2006-09-08). Retrieved on 2006-09-08.
  112. ↑ "Holocaust-konkurrence flopper". Jyllands-Posten (2006-09-15). Retrieved on 2006-09-17.
  113. ↑ "Holocaust-konkurrence flopper (p. 16)". Jyllands-Posten (2006-09-16). Retrieved on 2006-09-17.
  114. ↑ "Iran varsler endnu flere Holocaust-konkurrencer (p. 20)". Jyllands-Posten (2006-11-03). Retrieved on 2006-11-05.
  115. ↑ Translation of Sahih Muslim, Book 24
  116. ↑ Translation of Sahih Muslim, Book 24
  117. ↑ Translation of Sahih Muslim, Book 24
  118. ↑ Islam Today: Drawing Pictures & Producing Animated Cartoons
  119. ↑ Answers of Grand Ayatollah Uzma Sistani
  120. ↑ CAIR press release
  121. ↑ Afghanistan: At the Crossroads of Ancient Civilisations
  122. ↑ "Question #22809: Ruling on one who insults the Prophet", Islam Q & A. 
  123. ↑ OIC (28 January 2006). "Statement by H.E. Prof Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu Secretary General of the OIC".
  124. ↑ Abdelhadi, Magdi (4 February 2006). "Cartoon row highlights deep divisions", BBC News. 
  125. ↑ "Q&A: Depicting the Prophet Muhammad", BBC News (2 February 2006). 
  126. ↑ "Europe vs. Radical Islam by Francis Fukuyama", Policy Review (27 February 2006). 
  127. ↑ "Stoned to death... why Europe is starting to lose its faith in Islam", Times Online (4 December 2004). 
  128. ↑ "Denmark, the Euro, and fear of the Foreign", Policy Review (1 December 2000). 
  129. ↑ "Krekar claims Islam will win", Aftenposten (English Edition) (2006-03-13). 
  130. ↑ "Libyan Leader Mu'ammar Al-Qadhafi: Europe and the U.S. Should Agree to Become Islamic or Declare War on the Muslims", Middle East Research Institute (2006-04-10). 
  131. ↑ "Racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and all forms of discrimination (E/CN.4/2006/17)", UNCHR (13 February 2006). 
  132. ↑ "Denmark's new values", Guardian (15 February 2006). 
  133. ↑ "Second reprt on Denmark", European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (3 February 2001). 
  134. ↑ "Cultural racism: something rotten in the state of Denmark?", Social & Cultural Geography, Volume 2, Number 2, Karen Wren (1 June 2001). 
  135. ↑ "Islam and globanalisation", Al-Ahram (23 March 2006). 
  136. ↑ "Rotten in Denmark", antiwar (23 March 2006). 
  137. ↑ Cited in The God Delusion by Richard Dawkins (2006) - p26
  138. ↑ Heiko Henkel (May/June 2006). "‘The journalists of Jyllands-Posten are a bunch of reactionary provocateurs’ The Danish cartoon controversy and the self-image of Europe", Radical Phillosophy. 
  139. ↑ "EU adopts measure outlawing Holocaust denial", International Herald Tribune (2007-04-19). 
  140. ↑ "Qatari University Lecturer Ali Muhi Al-Din Al-Qardaghi: Muhammad Cartoon Is a Jewish Attempt to Divert European Hatred from Jews to Muslims", Al-Jazeera/MemriTV (2 March 2006). 
  141. ↑ "Cartoons 'part of Zionist plot'", Guardian (7 February 2006). 
  142. ↑ "PA: Likud behind Muhammad cartoons", ynet (13 February 2006). 
  143. ↑ "The Cartoon Jihad-The Muslim Brotherhood's project for dominating the West.", Weekly Standard (20 February 2006). 
  144. ↑ "Behind the cartoon war: radical clerics competing for followers", Christian Science Monitor (23 February 2006). 
  145. ↑ "Islamic Activism Sweeps Saudi Arabia", Washington Post (23 March 2006). 
  146. ↑ "The Cartoon Backlash: Redefining Alignments", Stratfor (7 February 2006). 
  147. ↑ "Cartoons Tap Into Deep-Seated Grievances", Forbes (8 February 2006). 
  148. ↑ "En uhellig alliance har bragt konflikten om det hellige ud af kontrol«", Information (1 February 2006).  (Danish)
  149. ↑ "Opportunists Make Use of Cartoon Protests", Washington Times (9 February 2006). 
  150. ↑ "Clash of Civilization", WallStreetJournal (11 February 2006). 
  151. ↑ "Iran plans Holocaust conference", CNN (16 February 2006). 
  152. ↑ "Tehran faces backlash over conference to question Holocaust", Guardian (16 January 2006). 
  153. ↑ "Iranian president says Israel should be moved to Europe", USAToday (16 January 2006). 
  154. ↑ "How a meeting of leaders in Mecca set off the cartoon wars around the world", The Independent (2006-02-10). 
  155. ↑ Active Measures: The Russian Art of Disinformation October 2006, AIRSHO magazine
  156. ↑ "Respectful Cultures & Disrespectful Cartoons", Counterpunch News (13 February 2006). 
  157. ↑ "The Mountain Comes to Muhammad", Reason Magazine (13 February 2006). 

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