Judge Dredd | |
2000AD prog 168 cover by Mike McMahon; 2000 AD and Judge Dredd copyright Rebellion A/S 2005. |
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Publication information | |
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Publisher | IPC Media (Fleetway) to 1999, thereafter Rebellion Developments |
First appearance | 2000 AD #2 (1977) |
Created by | John Wagner Carlos Ezquerra Pat Mills |
In-story information | |
Full name | Joseph Dredd |
Team affiliations | Mega-City One Justice Department, Academy of Law; Luna 1 Justice Department |
Notable aliases | The Dead Man |
Abilities | wields a 'lawgiver' pistol and rides a 'lawmaster' motorbike; excellent marksman and quick thinker; bionic eyes (implanted after time-travelling mission to the City of the Damned) grant 20/20 vision and reduced blinking rate. |
Judge Joe Dredd is a comics character whose strip in the British science fiction anthology 2000 AD is the magazine's longest running (having been featured there since its second issue in 1977). Dredd is a law enforcement officer in a violent city of the future where uniformed Judges combine the powers of police, judge, jury and executioner. Dredd and his fellow Judges are empowered to arrest, sentence and even execute criminals on the spot. He was created by writer John Wagner and artist Carlos Ezquerra, although editor Pat Mills also deserves some credit for his early development.
Judge Dredd is amongst Britain's best known home-grown comic book characters. So great is the character's reputation that his name is sometimes invoked over similar issues to those explored by the comic series, such as the police state, authoritarianism and the rule of law. [1]
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When Pat Mills was developing 2000 AD, he brought in his former writing partner, John Wagner, to develop characters. Wagner had written various Dirty Harry-style "tough cop" stories for other titles, and suggested a character who took that concept to its logical extreme, imagining an ultra-violent lawman patrolling a future New York City with the power to administer instant justice. Mills had developed a horror strip called Judge Dread but abandoned the idea as unsuitable for the new comic, but the name, with minor modification, was adopted by Wagner for his ultimate lawman.
The task of visualising the character was given to Carlos Ezquerra, a Spanish artist who had worked for Mills before on Battle Picture Weekly. Wagner gave Ezquerra an advertisement for the film Death Race 2000, showing the character Frankenstein clad in black leather on a motorbike, as a suggestion for what the character should look like. Ezquerra elaborated on this greatly, adding body-armour, zips and chains, which Wagner initially thought over the top. Wagner's initial script was rewritten by Mills and drawn up by Ezquerra, but when the art came back a rethink was necessary. The hardware and cityscapes Ezquerra had drawn were far more futuristic than the near-future setting originally intended, but Mills decided to run with it and set the strip further into the future.[2]
By this stage, however, Wagner had quit, disillusioned that a proposed buy-out (which would have given him and Mills a greater financial stake in the comic) had fallen through. Mills was reluctant to lose Judge Dredd and farmed the strip out to a variety of freelance writers, hoping to develop it further. Their scripts were given to a variety of artists as Mills tried to find a strip which would provide a good introduction to the character, all of which meant that Dredd would not be ready for 2000 AD's first issue, launched in February 1977. The original launch story written by Wagner and drawn by Ezquerra was finally published several years later in an annual.
The story chosen to introduce the character was submitted by Peter Harris, extensively re-written by Mills, and including an idea suggested by sub-editor Kelvin Gosnell. It was drawn by newcomer Mike McMahon. In it, Dredd brought to justice a criminal who had murdered another Judge and was hiding out in the ruins of the Empire State Building. The story introduced the motifs that would mark out Dredd: novel future crimes are resolved by hi-tech police procedure, with Dredd delivering a severe punishment. In this case, the villain is banished to a penal colony located on a traffic island. The strip debuted in prog 2, but Ezquerra, angry that another artist had drawn the first published strip, quit and returned to work for Battle. Wagner, however, soon swallowed his pride and returned to the character, starting in prog 9. His "Robot Wars" storyline was drawn by a rotating team of artists, including McMahon, Ezquerra, Ron Turner and Ian Gibson, and marked the point where Dredd became the most popular character in the comic, a position he has rarely relinquished. Dredd's city, which now covered most of North America's east coast, became known as Mega-City One.
The character has appeared in almost every issue since, the bulk of the stories written by Wagner (between 1980 and 1988, in collaboration with Alan Grant). Other illustrators of the strip have included Brian Bolland, Ron Smith, Steve Dillon and Cam Kennedy.
Since 1990 Dredd has also headlined his own title, the Judge Dredd Megazine. With Wagner concentrating his energies there, the Dredd strip in 2000 AD was left to younger writers such as Garth Ennis, Mark Millar, Grant Morrison and John Smith. Their efforts were not popular with fans, and sales fell. Wagner returned to writing the character full-time in 1997. Recently, many strips have been written by Gordon Rennie, and in interviews Rennie and Wagner have indicated that there is a plan for Wagner to retire once Rennie has established himself.
Judge Dredd has also been published in a long-running comic strip (1981-1998) in the Daily Star,[3] but also in Metro from January 2004-2005.[4] These were usually created by the same teams writing and drawing the main strip and the Daily Star strips have been collected into a number of volumes.
Senior Judge Joe Dredd, one of a number of clones of Chief Judge Eustace Fargo, is the most famous of the elite corps of Judges that run Mega-City One with the power not only to enforce the law, but also to instantly sentence offenders – and (if necessary) execute them. Dredd has a large, computer-driven "Lawmaster" motorbike, which mounts powerful cannons, and has full artificial intelligence, and is capable of responding to orders from the Judge and driving itself. It is equipped with a video communication system, and is also connected to the Justice Department which can receive and transmit information to and from the bike. He also has a "Lawgiver" handgun (DNA-coded to recognize his palm-print alone) that fires six types of bullets; a daystick; a bootknife; and a uniform with a helmet that obscures all of his face except his mouth and jaw. His entire face is never shown properly in the strip (on very rare occasions it has been shown in flashbacks to when he was a child, in pictures lacking in detail).[5] In an early story, Dredd is forced to remove his helmet and the other characters react as if he is disfigured, but Dredd's face was covered by a faux censorship sticker. In the story 'Dredd Angel' (progs 377-383), the face of Judge Fargo was clearly shown; some readers have speculated that as clones have the same DNA as their sire, Dredd would look identical to Fargo. Although this has never been acknowledged in the comic - since it was not established that Dredd was Fargo's clone until prog 552 - subsequent stories featuring Fargo have never shown his face. However, the assumption that human clones would be physically identical to their 'parent' and to each other is a fallacy and there is no scientific evidence to suggest that Dredd would necessarily resemble Fargo in any way.
A frequently used sentence in the series is "I am the Law!" Dredd could be viewed as the personification of Law itself, thus his face cannot be shown because as The Law he transcends any particular form. This is not to say, however, that he is totally inhuman. Throughout the strip he displays emotions (mostly anger) and irony. Another Dredd quote is "Democracy is not for the people," a short sentence containing the Judge's very human opinion of other humans, that they need to be very strictly controlled. However it should be noted that Dredd supported a referendum on the reintroduction of democracy in the story The Devil You Know. Ironically, when such a referendum was eventually held, the result came out strongly in favour of the status quo – rule by the Judges – as Dredd had expected it would all along.
As the strip occurs in real time, Dredd is currently more than sixty years old. However, his vitality is explained in the context of the stories with allusions to rejuvenation treatments. For some time, characters in the comic have mentioned that Dredd is not as young and fit as he used to be. If Dredd is becoming too old to serve, it is unclear whether there are plans to address this issue (Mega-City One has cloning and brain transplant technology for instance). This remains a major theme of current progs. In prog 1595 Dredd was diagnosed with malignant cancer of the duodenum.
Joe is nicknamed "Old Stoneyface", a name he apparently acquired while still a cadet. More recently, he has become known as the "Old Man"; though not confirmed, Joe is likely the oldest judge still on active street duty, with over fifty years of service (2079–2130). Recent stories have confirmed that Dredd is well aware he is living on borrowed time, with his replacements already being lined up. These include clones like Judge Rico and also other judges like Judge Giant.
As a result of events in the 2006-07 story Origins, some of Dredd's convictions have been shaken. He has recently come out against Mega-City One's treatment of mutants, attempting to have the laws repealed (which initially failed) and deliberately entering mutant camps to arrest the guards for abuses. He recently talked Chief Judge Hershey into another vote on their repeal. The second vote was a success in early 2130 and during the same story it was revealed that Dredd had reformist cadet America Beeny accelerated through the Academy. Dredd states in a monologue that he is very aware time is running short for him, and that his day as well as that of his generation of Judges is passing. He sees his job now to prepare the way for the new generation made up of cadets like Beeny.
Dredd has not given up on the law - far from it. He still believes in instant justice - but what appears to have changed is his trust in the system as it is. Dredd seems to believe in the ideal of the law but that the current system must change to conform to this ideal.
Joseph Dredd and his brother Rico Dredd were cloned from the DNA of Chief Judge Fargo, the first chief judge. Their growth was artificially accelerated so that they emerged in 2066 with an apparent physiological age of 5, with all the appropriate knowledge for their age electronically implanted in their brains by computer during gestation. The name Dredd was chosen by the genetic scientist who created them, Morton Judd, to "instill fear in the population."
In 2070 they saw action for the first time during the Atomic Wars, when as cadets they were temporarily assigned the rank of full judge and sent to restore order to the panic-stricken streets. Distinguishing themselves, they were chosen to take part in assaulting the White House when the Justice Department deposed President Booth. They were fast-tracked through the Academy of Law, Joe graduating second in his class in 2079 (Rico came first). Later that year Joe was forced to arrest Rico for murder.
Joe Dredd excelled as a judge, rapidly gaining promotion to the rank of senior judge. Offered the opportunity to become chief judge in 2101, he declined, preferring to serve on the streets enforcing the law. On several different occasions he saved his city from conquest or complete destruction by powerful enemies, and in 2114 he almost single-handedly saved the world from being destroyed during the Fourth World War.
Although Dredd puts his duty to uphold the law above everything, his devotion to duty is not simply blind loyalty, however. On two occasions (in 2099 and 2112) Dredd resigned from the force on points of principle, but both times returned to the fold. In 2113 Dredd insisted that the Justice Department gamble its very existence on a referendum to prove its legitimacy as a form of government. In 2116 he risked 20 years' imprisonment with hard labour when he challenged the policy of a chief judge which he was unable to support. In 2129 he threatened to resign to persuade another chief judge to change the city's harsh anti-mutant laws.
After over fifty years of active service, Dredd's career may be drawing to a close; in 2130 he was diagnosed with cancer.[6]
The strip is set 122 years in the future. The timeline is worth noting, because the strip appears in real time - thus, as the Dredd strip has been published since 1977, Dredd has aged 31 years as of 2008. The Earth has been badly damaged by a series of international conflicts, much of the planet has turned to desert, and so populations have tended to aggregate in enormous conurbations known as 'mega-cities'. The world of Judge Dredd is centred on the megalopolis of Mega-City One. Within Mega-City One, extensive automation (including the creation of a caste of intelligent robots) has rendered the majority of the population jobless. As a consequence, the general population is prone to embracing any fashion that comes along. Much of the remaining world's geography is somewhat vague, although other mega-cities have been referred to and visited in the strip. Mega-City One's population lives in gigantic tower blocks, each holding some fifty thousand or so people. Each is named after some historical person or TV character (Dredd used to live in the Rowdy Yates block); there is usually some joke in the names of the blocks. For instance, Rowdy Yates was a character in the U.S. TV cowboy drama Rawhide, played by a young Clint Eastwood. Eastwood would later play "Dirty Harry" -- one of the thematic influences upon which Judge Dredd was based. A number of stories feature rivalries between different blocks, on many occasions (for example, in the story "Block Mania") breaking into gunfire wars between them. The Judges' possessing such arbitrary and total powers reflect the difficulty of maintaining any order at all in a Mega-City's stifling environment.
Despite its frequent disasters, Mega-City One stretches from around Boston to Charlotte; it stretched further before the Apocalypse War, which saw widespread death and devastation - the south of the city being entirely wiped out. At its height, the city contained a population of about 800 million; the current population is less than half of that. The story Origins revealed that Mega-City One was formed due to growing urban sprawl rather than deliberate design, and by 2031 and with the introduction of the Judge system it was recognised as the first mega-city.
There are two other major population centres in Dredd's Northern America. The first is Texas City, stretching across several of the southern United States and with a different culture to its northern cousin, based on Wild West frontier values. Further north is Canadia, though the specifics of this settlement are unknown, except that they lack a Judge system. Once, Mega-City Two (stretching from around San Diego into Baja California) also existed, but was destroyed during the events of Judgement Day. The centre of the continent is a nuclear desert called the Cursed Earth, containing various settlements and minor cities.
Nuclear deserts and destruction elsewhere are also extensive. In South America, a new desert extends from Nicaragua, covering Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and pushing far into Amazonas. Cities in South America are Brasília, Ciudad Barranquilla, and on the western side the Pan-Andes Conurb and South-Am City; Brasilia and South-Am were destroyed during Judgement Day. The majority of the Caribbean islands have been destroyed, and the water there and across much of the north Atlantic is severely polluted, and is now known as the Black Atlantic. An underwater settlement known as Atlantis exists in the Atlantic, bridging a Mega-City One/Brit-Cit transport network.
Europe has suffered considerable reshaping, especially the south. A desert covers much of eastern France, extending south into Spain and Portugal and across to cover much of Central Europe. Classical Greece is gone, as are parts of Turkey, and the Mediterranean is now the home of the Mediterranean Free State, a floating conglomerate of various settlements and refugee groups. The Black Sea and the Caspian Sea are now joined. In Europe the major cities are Brit-Cit (covering all of southern England), Calhab (part of Scotland), Euro-City (eastern France and part of Germany), Vatican City (most of Italy) and Ciudad España (eastern Spain). Ireland is split between the megacity of Murphyville and the Emerald Isle, an enormous theme park re-creating a stereotypical view of traditional Irish life.
Further east into Asia are more nuclear deserts, the ruins of East-Meg One (destroyed by Dredd in a massive nuclear strike at the climax of the Apocalypse War), and further east the megalopolis of East-Meg Two. Mongolia, lacking a Mega-City or Judge system, has called itself the Mongolian Free State and criminals have flocked there for a safe haven.
In Asia, separated from East-Meg Two by an extensive nuclear desert, are Sino-City One (destroyed during Judgement Day) and Sino-City Two in eastern China, with Hong Tong built in the remains of Hong Kong and partitioned between Sino-Cit & Brit-Cit control; Hondo City on the remains of the islands of Japan; Djakarta in Indonesia, before its obliteration during Judgement Day; and Indo City (also called Nu-Delhi) in southern India. Between Hondo and Sino-City lies the Radlands of Ji, a nuclear desert full of chaos magic and many violent outlaw gangs and martial arts schools. Into the Blue Pacific cities survive in south-east Australia (Sydney-Melbourne Conurb), New Zealand (Pacific City), Solomon Islands (Solomon City) and Tonga (Friendly City). Borneo has been covered in mutagens, as have all of Indonesia's islands which are now linked by a network of mutant coral; called "The Web", this network of islands is a lawless hotbed of crime.
The Middle East is without major cities, being either nuclear or natural deserts; the Mediterranean coast is heavily damaged by mutagens. In Africa much of the south is nuclear desert, South Africa proper has been shattered and is entirely uninhabitable, and the continent is now known as Pan-Africa. The major cities are Umur (Libya), New Jerusalem (north-east Ethiopia), Luxor City (Egypt), Casablanca (Morocco), and Simba City (Cameroon). Lake Victoria is enlarged and has been renamed the Kenyatta Sea.
Nuclear fallout and pollution appear to have missed Antarctica and the Arctic, causing Mega-Cities (Antarctic City and Uranium City respectively) to have been constructed there.
The high levels of pollution have created instances of mutation in humans and animals. The Mega-Cities largely operate on a system of genetic normality making expulsion from the cities the worst punishment possible.
Earth's moon has been colonised, with a series of large domes forming Luna City; another colony, Puerto Luminae, exists but is a lawless, violent hellhole. In addition many deep space colonies have been established. Some are loyal to various mega cities while many are independent states, and others still face violent insurgencies to gain independence. The multi-national Space Corps battle both insurgencies and external alien threats. The planet Hestia (which is in a polar orbit of the sun that passes near to earth's) has a colony, there are some references to colonies on Mars such as Viking City, the moon Titan has a Judicial penal colony, and MC1 is known to have deep space missile silos on Pluto.
Continuity errors have crept into the history at various stages. An example is an early story featuring a mad scientist who experimented with human cloning - despite the fact that it had already been revealed that many Judges, including Dredd himself, were clones. The most glaring one is the reference to the penal colony for rogue Judges on Titan, which is said in the strip at various stages to orbit either Jupiter or Saturn (the latter is correct), seemingly at the whim of the writer at the time.
In the future the Judicial system has spread throughout the globe with various super-cities besides Mega City One possessing a Judge system of law enforcement and government. As such the Judicial political model has become the most common form of government on earth with only a few small areas practicing traditional civilian rule.
Judges once appointed, can be broadly characterized as 'street Judges' (who patrol the city), and administrative or office based judges (who teach at the Academy, or sit in formal positions).
Street Judges act as police, judge, jury and, if necessary, on-the-spot executioner. However, contrary to popular belief, Judges rarely carry out cold-blooded executions, and in general Capital punishment in Mega-City One is abolished, though 'deaths while evading capture' are numerous. Numerous writers have used the Judge system to satirize contemporary politics. The judges are, in theory, rendered absolutely incorruptible by the psychological conditioning they receive from a very early age -- although this has been subverted on several occasions to various degrees. One of the worst instances was by the insane Judge Cal who manipulated his way to the office of Chief Judge. Once he had absolute power, he proceeded to behave much like his namesake Caligula, even appointing his pet goldfish as his Deputy Chief Judge. Dredd was the leader of the rebel Judges who overthrew Cal; after Cal's death at the hands of Fergee, a dweller of the Mega-City's undercity, Dredd was offered the job of Chief Judge. He refused it, believing that he was needed far more out on the streets.
However, following the events in Wilderlands Dredd entered his nomination for Chief Judge as part of an investigation. When the investigation was over he let his nomination stand, eventually losing the vote to Judge Volt.
Various versions of the Judge system hold power in all the Mega-Cities of Dredd's world. There is an international charter which countries and city states join upon instituting a Judge system.
There have been a number of Judge Dredd storylines that have either significantly developed the Dredd character or the fictional world background, or which have been "epic" in scale (i.e., have been lengthy multi-part stories, usually at least fifteen parts or more, and have had a story of a grand scale). These include:
Numerous famous criminals ('perps' in the story's argot) have featured over the years including:
Shortly before the release of the 1995 movie, three new comic book titles were released, followed by a one-off comic version of the film story.
An American film loosely based on the comic strip was released in 1995, starring Sylvester Stallone as Dredd[13] (it was said that Arnold Schwarzenegger was originally requested for the role[14], but declined because in the original script, Dredd would keep the helmet on during major parts of the film). Fans were highly critical, largely regarding it as an American failure creatively; non-fan viewers reacted negatively, and it was a huge commercial failure as well. In deference to its expensive Hollywood star, Dredd's face was shown. In the comic, he very rarely removes his helmet and even then, his real face is never revealed. Also, in spite of the large production budget and accurate re-creation of the sets and characters' appearances, the writers largely omitted the ironic humour of the comic strip; they also ignored important aspects of the 'Dredd mythology'. For example, in the film a 'love interest' is developed between Dredd and Judge Hershey, something that is strictly forbidden between Judges (or Judges and anyone else for that matter) in the comic strip. In America, the film won several "worst film of the year" awards. Also of interest is the cameo appearance of the ABC Warrior robot, bearing a distinct resemblance to Hammerstein.
Judge Dredd: Dredd Vs. Death was produced by Rebellion Developments and released in early 2003 by Sierra Entertainment for the PC, PlayStation 2, Xbox and GameCube. The game sees the return of the Dark Judges when Mega-City One becomes overrun with vampires and the undead. The player takes control of Judge Dredd, with the optional addition of another Human player in Co-operative play; his mission is to bring the Dark Judges to Justice again. The whole game is played in the style of an FPS (first-person shooter) - with key differences from the standard FPS being the requirement to arrest lawbreakers and an SJS death squad which will hunt you down should you kill too many civilians.
Weapons include the standard Lawgiver Mark III, the Arbitrator Shotgun, the Lawrod Rifle, the Spit Gun, and a variety of other common FPS weapons.
The player can also go up against three friends in the various multiplayer modes which include Deathmatch/Team Deathmatch, Elimination/Team Elimination, Informant, Judges Vs Perps, Runner and more.
There have also been several games released across formats such as the PlayStation, SNES/Super Famicom, Sega Mega Drive/Genesis and several home computers, such as the Sinclair ZX Spectrum and Commodore 64, while a high-profile arcade game, or "coin-op," was developed - but never released - by Midway Games, creators of the Mortal Kombat video game franchise. Some of them (more specifically the SNES/Genesis versions) had the film as basis, given that the box artworks for these depict Stallone as he appears in the film poster.
Bally also produced a Judge Dredd pinball machine.
Mongoose Publishing have released a miniatures skirmish game of gang warfare based in Mega City 1 called Gangs of Mega-City One, often referred to as GOMC1. The game features Judges being called in when a gang is challenged another gang that is too tough to fight. A wide range of miniatures have been released, including box sets for an Ape Gang and an Undercity Gang. A Robot Gang was also produced but was released as two blister packs instead of a box set. Only one rules expansion has been released, called Death on the Streets, which is now out of print. The expansion introduced many new rules including usage of the new gangs and the ability to bring Judge Dredd himself into a fight. Signs and Portents continues to contain articles for this game fairly regularly.
There was also a short-lived collectible card game called simply 'Dredd' based on the world of Judge Dredd. In the game players would control a squad of judges and arrest perps. The rules system was innovative and the game was well-received by fans and collectors alike, but various issues unrelated to the game's quality caused its early demise.
Games Workshop produced a boardgame based on the comic strip in 1982. In the game players, who represent judges, attempt to arrest perps that have committed crimes in different location in Mega City One. A key feature of the game is the different action cards that are collected during play; generally these cards are used when trying to arrest perps although some cards can also be played against other players to hinder their progress. The winner of the game is the judge who collected the most points arresting perps. Whilst it is a reasonably simple game it is quite amusing especially when players spend time sabotaging each others arrest attempts. Additionally, there were many amusing card combinations such as arresting Judge Death for selling old comics, as the Old Comic Selling crime card featured a 2000 AD cover with Judge Death on it. The game used characters, locations and artwork from the comic but is now out of print.
In 1987, Games Workshop published a second Dredd-inspired boardgame, Block Mania. In this game for two players, players take on the role of rival neighboring blocks at war. This was a heavier game than the earlier Dredd boardgame, focused on tactical combat, in which players control these residents as they use whatever means they can to vandalize and destroy their opponent's block. Later the same year, Games Workshop released the Mega Mania expansion for the game, allowing the game to be played by up to 4 players.
Often overlooked in favour of official material, Drokk City (a non-profit Judge Dredd RPG) was in some fan circles considered the better adaptation of 'Dreddworld' to the roleplaying format, being the most detailed Judge Dredd reference series ever mounted. Published by former Mongoose Publishing freelancer John Caliber as a public apology for what he considered deep flaws with the Mongoose incarnation, Drokk City ran for four issues ('progs'), in full colour, distributed as PDF computer files. Although two more issues were advertised, a lack of interest from the author saw their cancellation, and the conclusion of the Drokk City series. By the time of their demise, issues 5 and 6 were in production, although far from completion. No copies of this 'lost' material are known to exist.
The Adeptus Arbites created by Games Workshop seemed to be heavily insipred by Judge Dredd.
From 1993 to 1995, Virgin published nine Judge Dredd novels. They had hoped the series would be a success in the wake of the feature film, but the series was cancelled after insufficient sales. The books are:
(In 2003 The Hundredfold Problem was re-released by BeWrite Books, rewritten as a non-Dredd novel.[15])
From 2003 to 2007, Black Flame published official 2000 AD novels, including a new run of Judge Dredd novels. Their nine Judge Dredd books are:[16]
In recent years Big Finish Productions have produced eighteen audio plays featuring 2000 AD characters. These have mostly featured Judge Dredd although three have also featured Strontium Dog. In these Judge Dredd is played by Toby Longworth and Johnny Alpha, the Strontium Dog is played by Simon Pegg.
The current list of 2000 AD audio plays featuring Dredd includes:
Note: 3 and 10 are Strontium Dog stories that do not feature Dredd.
In addition, both "The Day the Law Died" and "The Apocalypse War" stories were featured on Mark Goodier's afternoon show on BBC Radio One, and issued separately on dual cassette and double CD. Both titles have since been deleted. "The Apocalypse War" contains plot elements from "Block Mania" as this story set the scene for the East-Meg One Invasion.
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