Italian cuisine

Italian cuisine as a national cuisine known today has evolved through centuries of social and political changes, with its roots traced back to 4th century BC. Significant change occurred with discovery of the New World which helped shape much of what is known as Italian cuisine today with the introduction of items such as potatoes, tomatoes, bell pepper and maize, which are all central parts of the cuisine but not introduced in scale until the 18th century.[1]

Ingredients and dishes vary by region. There are many significant regional dishes that have become both national and regional. Many dishes that were once regional, however, have proliferated in different variations across the country in the present day. Cheese and wine are also a major part of the cuisine, playing different roles both regionally and nationally with their many variations and Denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) (regulated appellation) laws. Coffee, and more specifically espresso, has become highly important to the cultural cuisine of Italy.

Contents

History

Italian cuisine has evolved extensively over the centuries. Although the country known as Italy today had not officially formed until the 19th century, the cuisine can claim roots going back as far as 4th century BC. Through various influences throughout the centuries, including neighboring regions, conquerors, high-profile chefs, political upheavals as well as the discovery of the New World, a concrete cuisine has formed to what is known today as one of the premiere cuisines in the world.

Antiquity

See also: Roman cuisine

The first known Italian food writer was a Greek Sicilian named Archestratus who lived in Syracuse in the 4th century BCE. His writing was a poem that spoke of using "top quality and seasonal" ingredients of the freshest nature. He also stated that the flavors of the dishes should not be masked by spices, herbs, or other seasonings with an importance put upon this style of preparation for fish. This style of cuisine seemed to be forgotten during the 1st century AD when De re coquinaria was published with 470 recipes included many with heavy usage of spices, herbs which would hide much of the natural flavor of the dish. The Romans employed the best Greek bakers to produce their breads, imported pecorini from Sicily as the Sicilians were known for being the best cheese makers. The Romans were also known for rearing of goats for butchering, and gardening of artichokes and leeks.[2]

Middle Ages

See also: medieval cuisine

As Sicily had already obtained culinary traditions from Rome and Athens, a cuisine developed in Sicily that some consider the first real Italian cuisine.

Muslims invaded Sicily during the 9th century as most of what is known today as Northern Europe was being attacked by Viking raiders. The Arabs introduced spinach, almonds and rice and some say spaghetti as it made its possible first appearance during the 12th century AD when the Norman king made a survey of Sicily and noted that he saw people making long strings made from flour and water called atriya, which eventually became trii which is another term used for spaghetti in southern Italy. Normans also introduced casseroling, salt cod (baccalà) and stockfish which remain extremely popular today.[3]

Food preservation techniques were a necessity as refrigeration did not exist. Preservation was either chemical or physical. Meats and fish would be smoked, dried or kept on ice. Brine and salt were used to preserve items like pickles, herring and to cure pork meat. Root vegetables were also preserved in brine after they had been parboiled. Other items used to preserve foods included oil, vinegar or immersing animal proteins in their own congealed, rendered fat. For preserving fruits, liquor, honey and sugar were used.[4]

Making noodles; Tacuinum Sanitatis, 14th century.

The northern regions of future Italy started to show a mix of Germanic and Roman culture while the southern portion continued to reflect the influences of Arab culture as they controlled much of the Mediterranean trade routes, as such much of the Mediterranean cuisine had been spread by the Arab trade.[5] The oldest Italian book on cuisine is Liber de coquina written in Naples during the 13th century. Dishes included "Roman-style" cabbage (ad usum romanorum), ad usum campanie which was "small leaves" prepared in the "Campanian manner", a bean dish reflecting the Marca di Trevisio, a torta, compositum londardicum which are similar to dishes prepared today in Italy. In two other books from the 14th century recipes are found for Roman pastello, Lavagna pie, use of salt from Sardinia or Chioggia.[6]

During the 15th century Maestro Martino was chef to the Patriarch of Aquileia at the Vatican. His manuscript Libro de arte coquinaria describes a more refined and elegant cuisine. His book contains a recipe for Maccaroni Siciliani which was made by wrapping dough around a thin iron rod and dried in the sun. The macaroni was to be cooked in capon stock flavored with saffron, illustrating the Arab influence. Of particularly note is Martino's shedding the use of excessive spices in favor of fresh herbs.[7] The Roman recipes mentioned in the text includes recipes for coppiette and cabbage dishes. His Florentine dishes included eggs with a Bolognese torta, Sienese torta and for Genoese recipes such as piperata, macaroni, squash, mushrooms, and spinach pie with onions.[8]

Martino's manuscript was included in a book printed during 1475 in Venice written by Bartolomeo Platina entitled De honesta voluptate et valetudine ("On Honest Pleasure and Good Health"). Platina puts Martino's "Libro" in regional context, writing about ingredients coming from the regions, including perch from Lake Maggiore, sardines from Lake Garda, grayling from Adda, hens from Padua, olives from Bologna and Piceno, turbot from Ravenna, rudd from Lake Trasimeno, carrots from Viterbo, bass from Tiber, roviglioni and shad from Lake Albano, snails from Rieti, figs from Tuscolo, grapes from Narni, oil from Cassino, oranges from Naples and moray from Campania. Grains from Lombardy and Campania are also mentioned as is honey from Sicily and Taranto. The wines he mentions are from the Ligurian coast, Grecco from Tuscany and San Severino and Trebbiano from Tuscany and Piceno.[9]

Early modern era

The courts of Florence, Rome, Venice and Ferrara were part of the creation of fine cooking in Italy. The court of Estes in Ferrara was a central figure to the creation of this cuisine. Christoforo Messisbugo, steward to Ippolito d'Este, published Banchetti Composizioni di Vivande in 1549. In this work Messisbugo gives recipes for items such as pies and tarts (containing 124 recipes with various fillings). The work does emphasize the use of Eastern spices and sugar, whose use was otherwise diminishing.[10]

Bartolomeo Scappi personal chef to Pope Pius V

In 1570 Opera was written by Bartolomeo Scappi personal chef to Pope Pius V. This was a five-volume set that gave the most comprehensive detail of Italian cooking up to the period. The work contained over 1,000 recipes, with information on banquets including displays and menus as well as illustrations of kitchen and table utensils. The difference between most books written for the royal courts and this volume is its shedding of game and other meats and includes instead domestic animals and courtyard birds which was more inline with the "modest household". Recipes are also included how to clean and use lesser cuts of meats including tongue, head, and shoulder. The third book contains recipes for fish, or Lent cookery. Preparations for fish are simple including poaching, broiling, grilled, or fried after being marinated. Particular attention is given to seasons in which fish should be caught and in which location. The final volume includes pies, tarts, fritters and includes a recipe for a Neapolitan pizza. This version of the Neapolitan pizza is not the savory version known today, it was instead a sweet version as tomatoes had not yet been introduced to Italy. There were recipes for corn and turkey however, which were items from the New World.[11]

L'arte di Ben Cucinare published by Bartolomeo Stefani in 1662

During the first decade of the 17th century chef Giangiacomo Castelvetro published Brieve Racconto di Tutte le Radici di Tutte l'Herbe et di Tutti i Frutti (A Brief Account of all Vegetables, Herbs and Fruit) which was translated into English by Gillian Riley. Originally from Modena, Castelvetro moved to England because of his Protestant background. The book included a listing of Italian vegetables and fruits as well as their preparation. The chef's preparation of vegetables featured them as a central part of the meal, not just accompaniments. The favored preparation (still popular in Italy today) was to simmer vegetables in salted water and serving them warm or cold with olive oil, salt, fresh ground pepper, lemon juice and verjus or orange juice. Another preparation includes roasting vegetables wrapped in damp paper over charcoal or embers with a drizzle of olive oil, again a technique still used. Castelvetro's book is separated into seasons with mentions of hop shoots in the spring and truffles in the winter, detailing the truffle search with the use of pigs. [12]

In 1662 Bartolomeo Stefani chef to Gonzagas published L'Arte di Ben Cucinare. He was the last chef to publish a book of Italian cuisine, but the first to offer a full section on vitto ordinario ("ordinary food"). The book contained a section on a banquet given by Gonzagas for Queen Christina of Sweden with details for preparation prior to the banquet, preparation of the food and table settings including each guest having a setting of a knife, fork, spoon, glass, a plate instead of bowls often used up to this point and a napkin. Other books were published at this time to illustrate how scalco (server i.e. the waiter) should manage themselves while serving their guests. A book Galatheo by Giovanni della Casa. The book instructed waiters to not scratch their heads or other parts of themselves, not to spit, cough or sneeze while serving diners. The book also instructed diners to not use their fingers while eating as well as not wipe their sweat with their napkin.[13]

Modern era

Much of what is known as Italy today was still governed by France, Spain and Austria in the 18th century. It was at the beginning of the 18th century that the culinary books of Italy began to show the regionalism of Italian cuisine instead of the cuisine of France. The books written at the time were also no longer addressed to professional chefs but to bourgeois housewives.[14] Originating in booklet form, periodicals such as La cuoca cremonese (The cook of Cremona) written in 1794 gives a sequence of ingredients according to season along with chapters on meat, fish and vegetables. As the century progressed these books increased in size, popularity and frequency.[15]

The 18th century peasant diet consisted of heavy foods, necessary in an age where food was required to produce energy for the daily toil. Medical texts of the time warned peasants from eating refined foods as it was poor for their digestion and their bodies required a heavy meal to satisfy their hunger. It was also thought that peasants had coarse stomachs which were unable to digest refined foods and it was believed by some that peasants ate poorly because they were accustomed to eating poorly, resulting from the fact that many peasants had to resort to eating rotten foods and moldy breads in order to survive.[16]

Cucina Borghese published by Chef Giovanni Vialardi in 19th century

In 1779 Antonio Nebbia from Macerata, in the Marche region, wrote Il Cuoco Maceratese (The Cook of Macerata). In this book, Nebbia addressed the importance of local vegetables plus pasta and gnocchi. Instead of pureed soups in the French style, they included Mediterranean vegetables along with pasta or rice. For stocks, vegetables and chicken were favored over meat. Similarly, Vincenzo Corrado wrote Il Cuoco Galante (The Courteous Cook) in Naples in 1773 which featured regional vegetables and ingredients. Particular emphasis was given to Vitto Pitagorico (vegetarian food) in his words "Pitagoric food consists of fresh herbs, roots, flowers, fruits, seeds and all that is produced in the earth for our nourishment. It is so called because Pythagoras, as is well known, only used such produce. There is no doubt that this kind of food appears to be more natural to man, and the use of meat is noxious." It was also this book that the tomato took its first central role with thirteen recipes. Zuppa alli Pomidoro first appears in Corrado's book, it is a dish similar to today's Tuscan Pappa al Pomodoro. In Corrado's 1798 edition he introduced a "Treatise on the Potato" after the approval of France through Antoine-Augustin Parmentier's successful promotion.[17]

In the 19th century chef Giovanni Vialardi, chef to the first king of Italy, in his book A Treatise of Modern Cookery and Patisserie Vialardi wrote on recipes "suitable for a modest household." Many of his recipes included regional dishes from Turin including twelve recipes for potatoes Genoese Cappon Magro, still a regional dish today. Published in 1829, Il Nuovo Cuoco Milanese Economico written by Giovanni Felice Luraschi feature dishes regional to Milan including Kidney with Anchovies and Lemon and Gnocchi alla Romana, also used to this day. Gian Battista and Giovanni Ratto published La Cucina Genovese in 1871 and addressed the regional cuisine of Liguria. This book contained the first recipe for pesto. La Cucina Teorico-Pratica written by Ippolito Cavalcanti mentions the first recipe for pasta with tomatoes.[18] La scienza in cucina e l'arte di mangiare bene (The Science of Cooking and the Art of Eating Well), by Pellegrino Artusi, first published in 1891, is widely regarded as the canon of classic modern Italian cuisine, and its use is still widespread throughout Italy. Its recipes come mainly from Romagna and Tuscany, the regions where he was born and raised and where he subsequently lived.

Regional cuisines

The 20 Regioni of Italy

Each area has its own specialties, primarily at regional level, but also even at provincial level. These regional variances can come from the influence of a bordering country (such as France or Austria), vicinity to the sea or mountains as well as economic progress. Italian cuisine is not only highly regional, but is also distinguished by being very seasonal with high priority placed on the use of fresh, seasonal produce.

Friuli-Venezia Giulia

Friuli-Venezia Giulia shares many traditions with the bordering former Yugoslavia. The San Daniele del Friuli hams come from this region. Carnia in the northern region is known for its bacon and Montasio cheese. Collio, Grave del Friuli, and Colli Orientali are regional wine favorites. The dishes of the region take on the influence of Austrian, Hungarian, Slovene, and Croatian dishes. Beer halls of the region feature Viennese sausage, goulash and Bohemian hare. Many of the desserts of the region are flour based, such as strudels. Polenta is a staple and it finds its way into many variations including stirred dishes, baked dishes and can be seen served with sausage, cheese, fish, or meat. Dishes made with pork are often seen and can often be spicy and are often prepared over the open hearth called the fogolar.[19]

Veneto

A dish of risotto

Veneto is known for risotto. It is a dish where the ingredients vary by location, with fish and seafood being added closer to the coast and pumpkin, asparagus, radicchio and frogs' legs appearing further away from the Adriatic. Beans and other legumes are seen in these areas with the dish pasta e fagioli being a combination of beans and pasta. Veneto features heavier dishes using exotic spices and sauces. Ingredients like stockfish or simple marinated anchovies are found here as well. Less fish is eaten in Veneto and more meat and sausages are preferred such as the famous sopressata and garlic salami. High quality vegetables are prized here with red radicchio from Treviso being prized as well as asparagus from Bassano del Grappa.[20]

Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol

Goulash with gnocchi

Prior to the Council of Trent in 1550 Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol was known for the simplicity of its cuisine. When the prelates of the Church came they brought the art of fine cooking to the region. Fresh water fish is a specialty of this region. In later years the cuisine of the Republic of Venice and the Habsburg Empire were adopted. In the Alto Adige Alpine traditions are embraced which includes Slav, Austrian, and Hungarian cuisines. Goulash can again be found here as a regular Sunday dish. Potatoes, dumplings and homemade sauerkraut called crauti. Lard is a popular ingredient in this region. The national pasta, tomatoes and olive oil are used in this region as well.[21]

Pizzoccheri

Lombardy

Rice is a popular ingredient in Lombardy often found in soups as well as risotto. Regional cheeses are robiola or crescenza, taleggio, gorgonzola (from the namesake town) and grana padano being particularly important (the vast plains of central and southern Lombardy allowing for intensive cattle-raising). For the same reason butter and cream are used. Single pot dishes are popular here with the working class which take less labor to create. In the areas of Bergamo, Brescia, and Valtellina polenta is popular. In Mantua village festivals feature tortelli di zucca (ravioli with pumpkin filling) accompanied by melted butter and followed by turkey stuffed with chicken or other stewed meats.[22]

Rye bread

Val D'Aosta

Bread thickened soups of the hearty variety are customary in this region as well as cheese fondues called fonduta typical of the Alpine region. Polenta is another popular staple along with rye bread, smoked bacon, lard, chestnuts and game meats found in the mountain and forest regions. Butter and cream are also important ingredients in the creation of stewed, roasted and braised dishes.[23]

Gorgonzola cheese

Piedmont

Piedmont is a region where seasonal gathering of nuts, fungi, cardoons as well as seasonal hunting (especially wild game) and fishing takes place. Truffles, garlic, seasonal vegetables, cheese and rice are all used in this region. Wines from the Nebbiolo grape such as Barolo and Barbaresco are produced as well as wines from the Barbera grape, fine sparkling wines, and the sweet, lightly sparkling, Moscato d'Asti. Castelmagno is a prized cheese of the region. Filetto Baciato is the regions style of prosciutto made from pork fillet or other lean portion of pork marinated in white wine, coated with a salami paste and stuffed into a casing to age for six months.[24]

Liguria

In Liguria herbs and vegetables as well as seafood find their way into the cuisine. Savory pies and cakes are popular in the region. Onions and olive oil are used. The Ligurians, constricted by a lack of land suited to wheat productions made the most of chick-pea in farinata (plain or topped with onion, artichokes, sausage, cheese or young anchovies) and polenta-like panissa. Hilly or mountainous districts used chestnuts as a ready source of carbohydrates and sugar. Ligurian pastas include corzetti from the Polcevera valley, pansoti, a triangular shaped ravioli filled with vegetables, piccagge, pasta ribbons made with a small amount of egg and commonly served with artichoke sauce or pesto, trenette, made from wholewheat flour cut into long strips and served with pesto, boiled beans and potatoes, and trofie, a Ligurian gnocchi made from wholegrain flour or white wheat flour, made into a spiral shape and cooked with beans and potatoes and often tossed in pesto.[25] Many Ligurians were forced to emigrate in late XIX and early XX centuries; as a result, Argentina style Asado a la cruz can be found in local fairs during summer.

Emilia-Romagna

Parmesan cheese

Emilia-Romagna is known for its egg pasta made with soft wheat flour, indeed it is the Pasta capital of the North. Bologna is famous for many pasta dishes like tortellini, lasagne verdi, gramigna and tagliatelle which are found also in other towns of the region. In addition Romagna has Cappelletti, Garganelli, Strozzapreti, Spoglia Lorda and Tortelli alla Lastra. In Emilia, from Parma to Piacenza, rice is also eaten though to a lesser extent, as it is cultivated in the Po Valley. Polenta was historically the staple in all the Appenine mountain areas of both Emilia and Romagna. Centuries old products like authentic Aceto balsamico tradizionale or balsamic vinegar are made only in the Emilia towns of Modena and Reggio Emilia and Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale must be made following legally binding traditional procedures.[26]Another centuries old product, Parmigiano Reggiano cheese is produced in Reggio Emilia, Parma, Modena and Bologna and is much used in the cuisine. Though a lot of fish is eaten on the Adriatic coast, this is mainly a meat eating region and many different meats are eaten here including Romagna Lamb and Mora Romagnola Pork as well as game. The region is also famous for its many excellent cured pork products: Bologna, Parma and Modena hams, including Parma culatello and Salame Felino and Piacenza pancetta and coppa. It is also famous for cooked pork products like Bologna's mortadella and salame rosa, Modena's zampone, capello di prete and cotechino and Ferrara's salama da sugo

Tuscany

White truffle

Simplicity is central to the cuisine in Tuscany. Legumes, bread, cheese, crisp vegetables, mushrooms and fresh seasonal fruit are used. Olive oil is made from the Moraiolo, Leccino, Frantoio, and Pendolino olives. White truffles from San Miniato are a specialty that appear in October and November. Beef of the highest quality come from the Chiana Valley, specifically a breed known as Maremma used for the famed t-bone steaks known as Florentine steak. Pork-based products, such as Prosciutto Toscano are also common[27].

Umbria

Black truffles

Most of the dishes of Umbria are prepared with the simple techniques of boiling and roasting with the addition of local olive oil and herbs for flavor. Vegetable dishes are more popular in the spring and summer while they are in season, while the fall and winter introduces meats from the hunting season and black truffles from Norcia. Sausage making is very popular in this region produced by the Norcini (Umbrian Butchers, native of Norcia). Lenticchie di Castelluccio are prized lentils found in Castelluccio. The regions of Spoleto and Monteleone are known for their production of spelt. Freshwater fish are also found in the cuisine including lasca, trout, freshwater perch, grayling, eel, barbel, whitefish, and tench.[28]

Mortadella

Marche

On the coast of Marche, fresh fish and seafood are produced. In the inland regions wild and domestic pigs are used for sausages and hams. The hams are not thinly sliced, but cut into bite-sized chunks when served. Suckling pig, chicken and fish are often stuffed in this region before being roasted or placed on the spit.[29]

Lazio

Gnocchi

Hearty pasta dishes find their way into the cuisine of Lazio, like the renowned amatriciana pasta dressing, based on spicy red pepper and guanciale. The region prides itself on being able to use the lesser known cuts of pork and beef in tasty dishes, such as the entrail-based pajata and coda alla vaccinara. Some Jewish influence can also be seen in the cuisine, with Jews having been part of Roman milieu since the 1st century BC. Local vegetables, especially globe artichokes, are used.[30]

Abruzzo and Molise

Saffron

Chilies (peperoncini) are seen in the cuisine of Abruzzo where they are called diavoletti ("little devils") for the spicy heat they add to dishes. Centerbe ("Hundred Herbs") is a strong (72%), spicy herbal liqueur drunk by the local people here. Pasta, meat, and vegetables are central to the cuisine of Abruzzo and Molise. Lamb is used, combined with pasta. A special tool used to cut the local pasta is the chitarra (literally "guitar"), a fine stringed tool that the dough is pressed through. Another famous dish is arrosticini, little pieces of castrated lamb, impaled on a wooden stick and cooked on coals, very famous in Pescara. Saffron is a favorite spice of the region, grown in the province of L'Aquila, with the greatest production from the plains of Navelli. Although its popularity has slightly waned in recent years it can still be seen in some dishes which are central to Italian cuisine.[31]

Campania

Pizza Napoletana

Produce from Campania includes tomatoes, peppers, spring onions, potatoes, artichokes, fennel, lemons and oranges which all take on the flavor of the volcanic soil of the region. The Gulf of Naples offers fresh fish and seafood. Durum wheat is used in the production of the region's pastas. Campanian mozzarella is highly prized since it is made from the milk of the water buffalo. The traditional pizzas of the region are well known and take advantage of the fresh vegetables and cheese found there. Desserts include pastiera, sfogliatelle and rum-dipped babà.[32]

Much of Italian-American cuisine is based on that of Campania as well as Sicily, heavily Americanized to reflect ingredients and living conditions in the United States. In addition, most forms of pizza eaten around the world derive ultimately from the Neapolitan style, though greatly modified over the course of the 20th century.

Olive oil

Puglia

The northern portion of Puglia uses copious amounts of garlic and onion. The region is known for its dried pasta made from durum wheat flour. Fresh vegetables include tomatoes, zucchini, broccoli, bell peppers, potatoes, spinach, eggplants, cauliflower, fennel, Belgian endive, as well as legumes such as chickpeas, lentils and beans. Apulia is the largest producer of olive oil in Italy. The closeness to the sea brings fish and seafood to the table, especially oysters, and mussels. Goat and lamb are seen on the table here occasionally.[33]

Basilicata

Pork is an integral part of Basilicata's cuisine, often made into sausages or roasted on a spit by home cooks. Mutton and lamb are also popular meats in the region. Pasta is another common ingredient, made from duram wheat and water. The accompanying sauces for the pasta are generally of the meat or vegetable based variety. Spicy peperoncini are also popular in Basilicata. The bitter digestif Amaro Lucano is from this region.[34]

Calabria

Melons grown in Calabria

The cuisine of Calabria has been influenced by the conquerors and visitors of the region's past. The Arabs introduced oranges, lemons, raisins, artichokes and egg plants. Cistercian monks introduced agricultural practices to the region along with their skills in processing dairy products. French rule under the House of Anjou, and later Napoleon, along with Spanish influence, affected the language and culinary skills as seen in the naming conventions of items such as cake, gatò, from the French gateau. Seafood includes swordfish, shrimp, lobster, sea urchin and squid. Melons also grown in this region with watermelon, charleston gray, crimson sweet, cantelope, tendrale verde, piel de sapo and invernale giallo being served in a chilled Macedonia di frutta (fruit salad) or wrapped in Prosciutto.[35]

Sicily

Blood orange found in Sicily
Main article: Cuisine of Sicily

The influence of the Ancient Greeks can be found here: Dionysus has been said to have introduced wine to the region. The Romans later conquered the island and introduced lavish dishes based on goose. The Byzantines introduced sweet and sour flavors while during the 10th and 11th centuries the Arabs brought apricots, sugar, citrus, sweet melons, rice, saffron, raisins, nutmeg, clove, black pepper, and cinnamon which are all still seen in the cuisine today. The Normans and Hohenstaufens introduced a fondness for meat dishes. The Spanish introduced numerous items from the New World including cocoa, maize, turkey, tomatoes and other produce items. Tuna, sea bream, sea bass, cuttlefish, swordfish and other seafood are a part of the Siciliancuisine.[36]

Sardinia

carasau bread

Rock lobster, scampi, squid, tuna, sardines and other seafood and fish figure prominently into the cuisine. Suckling pig and wild boar are roasted on the spit or boiled in hearty stews of beans, vegetables and thickened with dry bread. Fresh herbs such as mint and myrtle are used. Sardinian bread is made in a drier format, which keeps longer than high-moisture breads as well, examples include civraxiu, coccoi pinatus, a highly decorative bread and pistoccu made with flour and water only, meant to travel distances with herders, but served at home often with tomatoes, basil, oregano, garlic and a strong cheese.[37]

Meal structure

Meals in Italy usually contain no fewer than 3-4 courses. Meals are seen as a time to spend with family and friends instead of immediate sustenance, as such the daily meals can be longer than in other cultures. During holidays, many family feasts will last for many hours.

In many homes today the traditional Italian menu is kept for special events (such as weddings) while the everyday menu only includes the first and second course, the side dish and coffee. One notable aspect of an Italian meal, is that the primo or first course, is usually the more filling dish and will consist of either risotto or pasta, both being rich in carbohydrates. Modern Italian cuisine also includes single courses (all-in-one courses), providing carbohydrates and proteins at the same time (e.g. pasta and legumes).

Aperitivo
apéritif usually enjoyed as an appetizer before a large meal, includes Campari, Cinzano, Prosecco, Aperol, Spritz and Vermouth.
Antipasto
literally "before (the) meal", hot or cold appetizers
Primo
"first course", usually consists of a hot dish like pasta, risotto, gnocchi, polenta or soup.
Secondo
"second course", the main dish, usually fish or meat. Traditionally veal, pork and chicken are the most commonly used meat, at least in the North, though beef has become more popular since World War II and wild game is very popular, particularly in Tuscany. Fish are those which are caught locally.
Contorno
"side dish", may consist of a salad or cooked vegetables. A traditional menu features salad along with the main course.
Formaggio e frutta
"cheese and fruits", the first dessert. Local Cheeses may also be part of the Antipasto or Contorno as well.
Dolce
"dessert", such as cakes and cookies
Caffè
coffee
Digestivo
"digestives", liquors/liqueurs (grappa, amaro, limoncello,sambuca,nocino) sometimes referred to as ammazzacaffè ("coffee killer")

Note: On restaurant menus, these terms may be referred to as Primi, Secondi, Contorni, and Digestivi.

Dining out

Trattoria

Each type of establishment has a defined role and traditionally sticks to it.[38] Below is a listing of dining and drinking establishments in Italy.

Places to dine out

Coffee

Espresso
See also: espresso
Moka per il caffè

Italian style coffee (caffè), also known as espresso is made from the same coffee beans as any other style of coffee. However, beans prepared for espresso are usually roasted dark, and are often a blend of coffee beans of various origins. In Italy the espresso is roasted medium to medium dark in the north, and gets darker moving south, though throughout all of Italy a very prominent coffee in the blends are Brazilian coffees.

A common misconception is that espresso contains more caffeine than coffee but the opposite is true. The longer roasting period for the beans extracts more of the caffeine and thus giving espresso roast beans less caffeine content. The modern espresso machine invented in 1937 by Achille Gaggia uses a pump and pressure system with water heated up to 90-95°C (194-203°F) and forced with high pressure through a few grams of finely ground espresso roast beans with a pressure of nine bars in 25-30 seconds resulting in about 25 milliliters or two tablespoons of liquid.[51]

Home espresso makers are simpler but work under the same principle. La Napoletana is a four part stove-top unit with grounds placed inside a filter loosely, the kettle portion is filled with water and once boiling, the unit is inverted to drip through the grounds. The Moka per il caffè is a three part stove-top unit that is placed on the stove-top with loosely packed grounds in a strainer, the water rises from steam pressure, and is forced through the grounds into the top portion. It is unlike a percolator in that the brewed coffee is not re-circulated.[52]

It is usually served in a demitasse in small quantity. Caffè macchiato is a topped with a bit of steamed milk or foam; ristretto is made with less water, and is stronger; cappuccino is mixed or topped with steamed, mostly frothy, milk. It is generally considered a morning beverage; caffelatte is generally equal parts espresso and steamed milk, similar to café au lait, and is typically served in a large cup. Latte macchiato (spotted milk) is a glass of warm milk with a bit of coffee.

Wine

DOCG label on wine bottle
Main article: Italian wine

Italy produces the largest amount of wine in the world and is the largest exporter and consumer of wine. Two-thirds of the wine produced is bulk wine used for blending in France and Germany. The wine distilled into spirits in Italy exceeds the production of wine in the entirety of the New World. Although Italy produces the largest amount of wine in the world, only approximately 25% of it is put into bottles for individual sale.[53]. Much like the variety of regional cuisines of Italy, the wines are extremely varied with twenty separate wine regions.[54]

Those vineyards producing great wines have been attempting to wash away the old image of jug wines so often associated with Italian wine production. To promote this process the Italian government created a number of laws to regulate the wine industry. The Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC) law passed in 1963 regulates the place of origin. The laws associate with DOC have been regularly updated. One of the updates in 1980, created the Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG). DOCG is reserved for only the best wines in Italy. These laws regulate place of origin, quality, production methods and the type of grape used to produce the wine. The designation of Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT) is a slightly less restrictive designation regulating place which is considered to help a wine maker graduate to the (DOC) level.[55]

Holiday cuisine

Every region has its own holiday recipes. In Sicily and other Italian communities worldwide, on March 19, La Festa di San Giuseppe (St. Joseph's Day), thanks are given to St. Joseph for preventing a famine in Sicily during the Middle Ages. The fava bean was the crop which saved the population from starvation, and is a traditional part of St. Joseph's Day altars and traditions. Other customs celebrating this festival include wearing red clothing, eating Sicilian pastries known as zeppole and giving food to the needy.

On Christmas Eve a symbolic fast is observed (the so-called "cena di magro", the "light dinner") excluding beef, pork and lamb meat and including courses based mainly on fish and other seafood, but also on snails and frogs. On Christmas Italians often serve tortellini as a first course. The typical cakes of the Christmas season are panettone and pandoro. On Easter Sunday, lamb-based dishes are served in both northern and southern Italy. Typical at Easter Sunday in Umbria and Tuscany is also a breakfast with salami, boiled eggs, wine and Easter Cakes and pizzas.

Notes

  1. ↑ Del Conte, 11-21.
  2. ↑ Del Conte, 11.
  3. ↑ Del Conte, 12.
  4. ↑ Capatti, 253-254.
  5. ↑ Capatti, 2-4.
  6. ↑ Capatti, 6.
  7. ↑ Del Conte, 12.
  8. ↑ Capatti, 9-10.
  9. ↑ Capatti, 10.
  10. ↑ Del Conte, 13.
  11. ↑ Del Conte, 14,15.
  12. ↑ Del Conte, 14,15.
  13. ↑ Del Conte, 15.
  14. ↑ De Conte, 16
  15. ↑ Capatti, 158-159.
  16. ↑ Capatti, 282-284.
  17. ↑ De Conte, 17
  18. ↑ De Conte, 18-19
  19. ↑ Piras, 13.
  20. ↑ Piras, 33.
  21. ↑ Piras, 67.
  22. ↑ Piras, 87.
  23. ↑ Piras, 123, 124, 128, 133.
  24. ↑ Piras, 139, 149, 159.
  25. ↑ Piras, 167, 177.
  26. ↑ Piras, 187.
  27. ↑ Piras, 221-239.
  28. ↑ Piras, 255, 256, 260, 261.
  29. ↑ Piras, 273
  30. ↑ Piras, 291.
  31. ↑ Piras, 319.
  32. ↑ Piras, 337.
  33. ↑ Piras, 361.
  34. ↑ Piras, 383.
  35. ↑ Piras, 401.
  36. ↑ Piras, 423.
  37. ↑ Piras, 457, 460.
  38. ↑ Evans, 198-200.
  39. ↑ Evans, 200.
  40. ↑ Evans, 200.
  41. ↑ Evans, 200.
  42. ↑ Evans, 200.
  43. ↑ Evans, 201.
  44. ↑ Evans, 201.
  45. ↑ Evans, 203
  46. ↑ Evans, 203.
  47. ↑ Evans, 203
  48. ↑ Evans, 204.
  49. ↑ Evans, 205
  50. ↑ Evans, 205.
  51. ↑ Piras, 300.
  52. ↑ Piras, 301.
  53. ↑ Koplan, 301.
  54. ↑ Koplan, 311.
  55. ↑ Koplan, 307-308.

References

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