Islam in India

Islam in India


New Delhi Jama Masjid.jpg

History
Architecture

Mughal · Indo-Islamic · Indo-Saracenic
Major figures

Moinuddin Chishti · Akbar
 · Ahmad Raza Khan
 · Maulana Azad
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan · Bahadur Yar Jung
Communities

Northern · Mappilas · Tamil
Konkani · Marathi · Vora Patel
Memons · North-Eastern · Kashmiris
Hyderabadi · Dawoodi Bohras · Khoja
Oriya · Nawayath · Bearys · The Saits
Meo · Sunni Bohras
Kayamkhani · Bengali
Schools of law

Hanafi · Shafi`i · Maliki · Hanbali
Schools of thought

Barelvi · Deobandi · Shia · Ahle Hadith
Mosques in India

Historic Mosques of India
Culture

Muslim culture of Hyderabad
Other topics

Ahle Sunnat Movement in South Asia
Islahi Movement in Kerala
Indian Muslim nationalism
Muslim chronicles for Indian history

Islam in India is the second-most practiced religion after Hinduism. There are approximately 154 million Muslims in India's population as of 2008 (according to government census 2001), i.e., 13.4% of the population.[1][2][3][4][5] Currently, India has the third largest population of Muslims in the world.[6][7]

Contents

History

Main article: Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent

The emergence of Islam in the region is concurrent with the Turko-Muslim invasion of medieval India (which includes large parts of present day Pakistan and the Republic of India), where these rulers took over the administration of large parts of India. Since its introduction into India, Islam has made significant religious, artistic, philosophical, cultural, social and political influences to Indian history.

In modern times the Muslims of South Asia have had a turbulent history within the region. After the Lahore Resolution of 1946, Muslim League politicians achieved a Muslim-majority state known as Pakistan after independence from British rule. In modern times, the Muslim populations of India and Pakistan are roughly even. The previous President of India, APJ Abdul Kalam, two more before him, and numerous other politicians are Muslims, as are numerous sports and film celebrities within India. Isolated incidences of violence nonetheless have occurred between the Muslim populations and the Hindu, Sikh and Christian populations.

Contrary to popular belief, Islam came to South Asia long before Muslim invasions of India. Islamic influence first came to be felt in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders. Trade relations between Arabia and the subcontinent are very ancient. Arab traders used to visit the Malabar region, which was a link between them and ports of South East Asia, to trade even before Islam had been established in Arabia.

Part of a series on
Islam by country

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Islam in Africa
Islam in Asia
Islam in Europe
Islam in Americas
Islam in Oceania

According to Historians Elliot and Dowson in their book The History of India as told by its own Historians, the first ship bearing Muslim travelers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 AD. H.G. Rawlinson, in his book: Ancient and Medieval History of India[8] claims the first Arab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century AD. Shaykh Zainuddin Makhdum’s “Tuhfat al-Mujahidin” also is a reliable work[9].This fact is corroborated, by J. Sturrock in his South Kanara and Madras Districts Manuals[10], and also by Haridas Bhattacharya in Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV.[11]It was with the advent of Islam that the Arabs became a prominent cultural force in the world. The Arab merchants and traders became the carriers of the new religion and they propagated it wherever they went.[12]

The first Indian mosque was built in 629 A.D, at the behest of Cheraman Perumal, during the life time of Muhammad (c. 571–632) in Kodungallur by Malik Bin Deenar.[13][14][15]

In Malabar the Mappilas may have been the first community to convert to Islam because they were more closely connected with the Arabs than others. Intensive missionary activities were carried out along the coast and a number of natives also embraced Islam. These new converts were now added to the Mappila community. Thus among the Mapilas, we find, both the descendants of the Arabs through local women and the converts from among the local people[16]

In the 8th century, the province of Sindh (Pakistan) was conquered by an Arab army led by Muhammad bin Qasim. Sindh became the easternmost province of the Umayyad Caliphate.

In the first half of the 10th century, Mahmud of Ghazni added the Punjab to the Ghaznavid Empire and conducted several raids deeper into modern day India. A more successful invasion came at the end of the 12th century by Muhammad of Ghor. This eventually led to the formation of the Delhi Sultanate.

Muslim-Indian interactions

There is much evidence in history to show that Arabs and Muslims interacted with India and Indians from the very early days of Islam, if not before the arrival of Islam in Arabia.

Many Sanskrit books were translated into Arabic as early as the Eighth century. George Saliba writes in his book 'Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance' that "some major Sanskrit texts began to be translated during the reign of the second Abbasid caliph al-Mansur [754-775], if not before; some texts on logic even before that, and it has been generally accepted that the Persian and Sanskrit texts, few as they were, were indeed the first to be translated."[17]

Conversion controversy

See also: Persecution of Hindus#During Islamic rule of the Indian sub-continent

Considerable controversy exists both in scholarly and public opinion about the conversions to Islam typically represented by the following schools of thought:[18]

  1. The bulk of Muslims are descendants of migrants from the Iranian plateau or Arabs.[19]
  2. Muslims sought conversion through jihad <No real reference>
  3. Conversions occurred for non-religious reasons of pragmatism and patronage such as social mobility among the Muslim ruling elite or for relief from taxes[18][19]
  4. Conversion was a result of the actions of Sunni Sufi saints and involved a genuine change of heart[18]
  5. Conversion came from Buddhists and the en masse conversions of lower castes for social liberation and as a rejection of the oppressive Hindu caste structures.[19]
  6. A combination, initially made under duress followed by a genuine change of heart[18]
  7. As a socio-cultural process of diffusion and integration over an extended period of time into the sphere of the dominant Muslim civilization and global polity at large.[19]

Embedded within this lies the concept of Islam as a foreign imposition and Hinduism being a natural condition of the natives who resisted, resulting in the failure of the project to Islamicize the Indian subcontinent and is highly embroiled within the politics of the partition and communalism in India.[18] An estimate of the number of people killed, based on the Muslim chronicles and demographic calculations, was done by K.S. Lal in his book Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India, who claimed that between 1000 CE and 1500 CE, the population of Hindus decreased by 80 million. His work has come under criticism by historians such as Simon Digby (School of Oriental and African Studies) and Irfan Habib for its agenda and lack of accurate data in pre-census times. Lal has responded to these criticisms in later works. Historians such as Will Durant contend that Islam was spread through violence.[20][21] Sir Jadunath Sarkar contends that several Muslim invaders were waging a systematic jihad against Hindus in India to the effect that "Every device short of massacre in cold blood was resorted to in order to convert heathen subjects."[22] Hindus who converted to Islam were not immune to persecution due to the Muslim Caste System in India established by Ziauddin al-Barani in the Fatawa-i Jahandari.[23], where they were regarded as an "Ajlaf" caste and subjected to discrimination by the "Ashraf" castes[24]

Disputers of the "Conversion by the Sword Theory" point to the presence of the large Muslim communities found in Southern India, Sri Lanka, Western Burma, Bangladesh, Southern Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia coupled with the distinctive lack of equivalent Muslim communities around the heartland of historical Muslim Empires in the Indian Sub-Continent as refutation to the "Conversion by the Sword Theory". The legacy of the Muslim conquest of South Asia is a hotly debated issue and argued even today. Different population estimates by economics historian Angus Maddison and by Jean-Noël Biraben also indicate that India's population did not decrease between 1000 and 1500, but increased by about 35 million during that time.[25][26]

Not all Muslim invaders were simply raiders. Later rulers fought on to win kingdoms and stayed to create new ruling dynasties. The practices of these new rulers and their subsequent heirs (some of whom were borne of Hindu wives) varied considerably. While some were uniformly hated, others developed a popular following. According to the memoirs of Ibn Batuta who travelled through Delhi in the 14th century, one of the previous sultans had been especially brutal and was deeply hated by Delhi's population, Batuta's memoirs also indicate that Muslims from the Arab world, Persia and Turkey were often favored with important posts at the royal courts suggesting that locals may have played a somewhat subordinate role in the Delhi administration. The term "Turk" was commonly used to refer to their higher social status. S.A.A. Rizvi (The Wonder That Was India - II), however points to Muhammad bin Tughlaq as not only encouraging locals but promoting artisan groups such as cooks, barbers and gardeners to high administrative posts. In his reign, it is likely that conversions to Islam took place as a means of seeking greater social mobility and improved social standing.[27]

Islam in states

Assam

Muslims constitute nearly one-third of the state population (30.9%), the second highest after Jammu & Kashmir. They account 8,240,611 of the state total population of 26,655,528. Goalpara, Dhubri, Barpeta, Nagaon, Karimganj and Hailakandi are some of the Muslim concentration districts of Assam.

The indigenous Muslim community of the Brahmaputra Valley, locally known as Garias, numbers 35 lakh. The term Gariya is believed to have been derived from the word gaur, the then Muslim capital of Bengal, from where the Muslims trace their origin. They have a history of 800 years in Assam. A series of campaigns by Muslim rulers from Bengal and Delhi took place from the 13th to the 17th centuries. The indigenous Muslims or the Garias are mainly the descendants of the Muslims who stayed back after these campaigns. They settled down by marrying local girls.

The history of the Muslims of South Assam or Barak Valley goes back to 13th century.There the first evidence of the large scale Muslim settlement is found in modern Karimganj District. It was in 1303 A.D. when Hazrat Shahjalal the famous Sufi Saint of Bengal and Assam conquered Sylhet and he asked at least six of his followers to spread Islam in the Karimganj region. It is noteworthy that Karimganj was a part of Sylhet till 1947. Shah Badar from whom the name of Badarpur originated;Adam Khaki, Shah Ziayuddin, Shah Sikandar, etc. According to the tradition there are some others sufis like Asim Shah, Shaban Shah were the companions of Shahjalal. Since then large number of Muslims belong to the Turko-Afghan tribes attracted to this far land. Malik Mohammad Turani is one such person who migrated from Turan in central Asia to Badarpur locality, and after defeating ruler of a small tribal principality established his rule at Deorail, his grandson Malik Pratb curved out a new principality Pratabgarh that covered almost all the areas of Karimganj. The most important settlement of Muslims taken place during the Mughal-Afghan conflict. Large numbers of Afghans belong to Karrani tribe mainly settled down to avoid the direct control of Mughals. However, it is not that Islam spread in Kaimganj only the neighbouring areas of Cachar and Hailakandi came intouch of Muslim societal expansion. At least two of the companions of Shahjalal choose those areas.Still their graveyards veneratd by the thousnads of Hindu-Muslim followers. The works of those Sufis brought a large numbers of local into the fold of Islam since the early 13th century. These Muslims along with their fellows of undivided Sylhet gradually came to known as the Sylheti Muslims dring the time British rule. Presntly the population of the Sylheti Muslims of Assam is around 15 Lakhs.

The earliest record of Muslim settlement in the Brahmputra valley region dates back to the campaign of Nawab of Bengal Alauddin Hussain Shah (1493-1519), who after overpowering the ruler of Kamrup in 1498 annexed it. Sultan Ghiyasuddin, who was appointed governor of the occupied territory established a Muslim colony in Hajo. When Turbak, a Muslim general from Bengal invaded Assam in 1532 Muslims troops, numbering around 900 were taken as prisoners. They were later settled in Assam. Morias, a class of the indigenous Assamese Muslims found mainly in Kamrup, Sivasagar and Lakhimpur regarded themselves as the descendants of these captive Muslims. They still today regard Turbak as traditional chief. They manufacture household utensils from brass and bell-metal and are associated with it still today.

Muslims in large scale emigrated in western part of Assam when Koch Hajo, comprising the present districts of Kamrup and Goalpara region from 1613 to 1667 by the Mughals. Hajo became a stronghold and headquarters of the Mughals. It was during this period of Mughal occupation that Muslim military generals and nobles were conferred fiefs or military jagirs in this region.

The Assamese kings also introduced and patronised learned and skilled Muslims. Scholarly Muslims were attached to the Ahom court as scribes, known as Parsi-parhias; and the royal mint was also by and large under the supervision of Muslim officials. Many of the Assamese kings and queens struck coins with Persian legends engraved on them. Muslim artisans and craftsmen were incorporated into khanikar khel, a guild or a functional class of artisans. Some of the Muslim functional classes incorporated in the khel were Khargharia or manufacturers of gun-powder, Senchowa or hawk-trainers, Mistri or carpenters and ivory workers, Rahankara or dyers and painters, Rajmistry or architect and craftsman, Dorji or tailors, Jola or cotton cloth weavers, Hiloi gorha ustad or maker of steel and copper cannon, Karsipar bankara or cloth-embroiders, etc.

Many from the local population were also believed to have converted to Islam through the preaching of the several Pirs who visited and settled down in Assam. Many of these preachers accompanied the invading Muslim troops. They were patronised by the Assamese kings, by granting pir-pal lands (revenue free lands) and stipends and even bearing the cost of the maintenance of the shrines of popular Pirs. The names of some of the prominent Pirs who took to preaching and proselytising activities in Assam are Ghiyasuddin Auliya, Hasrat Osman Gani; Shah Akbar, Shah Sufi, Shah Kamal, Shah Pagmar and Shah Sharan, popularly known as Panch Pir; Baba Langar Shah; Sawal Pir, popularly known as Bandar Pir; Komaldya Khunkar Muhammad Gain, Azan Pir, among others. Their dargahs are visited by people of all faiths to fulfil their prayers even today. Even urs (anniversaries) of many Pirs are held every year.

The immigrant Muslims are, by and large, the descendants of those Muslim farmer-migrants who emigrated mainly from Mymensingh, Rangpur, Pabna and Bogna districts of Eastern Bengal (now Bangladesh) in the 19th and 20th centuries. They took to cultivation by reclaiming the fertile wastelands of Assam. Sharp social divisions between indigenous Muslims and the migrant Muslims developed from the late 19th century. These two broad groups hardly enter into matrimonial relations. The indigenous Assamese Muslims are mainly concentrated in upper part of Assam whereas the migrant Muslims mainly in lower part of Assam.[28]

Kerala and Tamil Nadu

Malik Ibn Dinar and 20 others who were the followers of Prophet Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, first landed in Kodungallur in Kerala when they came to India. Islam received royal patronage in some states here, and later spread to other parts of India. He was gifted a defunct Jain temple by the local ruler, where he established the first mosque in the Indian subcontinent. The exact date of its establishment is not known but is believed to be in 629 CE. Though, generally it is considered to be the second mosque of the world to make Jumma Prayer after the mosque in Medina, Saudi Arabia. His missionary team then went on to build 10 other mosques along the Malabar coast including the ones at Kollam, Chaliyam,Pantalayini Kollam/Quilandi, Madayi/Pazhayangadi, Srikandhapuram,Dharmadom, Kasaragode,Mangalore and Barkur. Some reports suggest that the ancient mosques at Chombal, Kottayam,Poovar and Thengapattanam were also built during this time.

After the fall of Chola Dynasty, the newly formed Vijayanagara Empire invited the Seljuk Turks from Ottoman Empire from the Fractions of Hanafi (Known as Rowther in South India) for trade link in 1279 AD, then biggest armada of Turks traders and missionaries settled in Tharangambadi (Nagapattinam), Karaikal, Muthupet, Koothanallur and Podakkudi. Turks (Rowthers) were unable to convert Hindus in Tanjore regions. The Turks settled in this area's with their armada and expanded to a moderate size of Islam community with population of almost 1 million Rowthers. These new settlements were now added to the Rowther community. Hanafi franctions having a mixed fair and darker complexion because they were more closely connected with the Turkish than others in South. There are some Turkish Anatolian and Turkish Safavid Inscriptions found in wide area from Tanjore to Thiruvarur and in many villages, inscriptions seized by Madras Museum and available for public viewing. You may contact Archeologic Division [II] at Madras Museum, for viewing and further research.

Later in the 1300 AD Arabs settles in the areas of Nagore, Kilakkarai, Adirampattinam, Kayalpatnam, Erwadi and Sri Lanka this peoples may have been the first Shafi Fractions (Known as Marakkar in Far South and Coastal area of South India) community of Islam. Shafi Fractions also have mixed fair and darker complexion because they were more closely connected with the Arabs than others in South. Arab traders also opened many new villages in these areas and settle. Intensive missionary activities were carried out along the coast and a number of natives like Malaya and Indonesia also embraced Islam. Arabs (Marakkar's) missionaries marries local women's and convert them to Islam. This conversion made Marakkars to be a very big Islamic community of almost 2.5 million peoples.[29]

Sufism and spread of Islam

Sufis (Islamic mystics) played an important role in the spread of Islam in India. They were very successful in spreading Islam, as many aspects of Sufi belief systems and practices had their parallels in Indian philosophical literature, in particular nonviolence and monism. The Sufis' unorthodox approach towards Islam made it easier for Hindus to practice. Hazrat Khawaja Muin-ud-din Chisti, Nizam-ud-din Auliya, Shah Jalal, Amir Khusro,Sarkar Sabir Pak,Waris Pak trained Sufi groups for the propagation of Islam in different parts of India. Once the Islamic Empire was established in India, Sufis invariably provided a touch of colour and beauty to what might have otherwise been rather cold and stark reigns. The Sufi movement also attracted followers from the artisan and untouchable communities; they played a crucial role in bridging the distance between Islam and the indigenous traditions. However there is also evidence of fanatical and violent conversions carried out by Sufi Muslims. Ahmad Sirhindi, a prominent member of the Naqshbandi Sufi advocated the peaceful conversion of Hindus to Islam.

Role of Muslims in India's independence movement

The contribution of Muslim revolutionaries, poets and writers is documented in India's struggle against the British. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Rafi Ahmed Kidwai are Muslims who engaged in this purpose. Muhammad Ashfaq Ullah Khan of Shahjehanpur conspired to loot the British treasury at Kakori (Lucknow). Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (popularly known as Frontier Gandhi), was a great nationalist who spent 45 of his 95 years of life in jail; Barakatullah of Bhopal was one of the founders of the Ghadar party which created a network of anti-British organizations; Syed Rahmat Shah of the Ghadar party worked as an underground revolutionary in France and was hanged for his part in the unsuccessful Ghadar (mutiny) uprising in 1915; Ali Ahmad Siddiqui of Faizabad (UP) planned the Indian Mutiny in Malaya and Burma along with Syed Mujtaba Hussain of Jaunpur and was hanged in 1917; Vakkom Abdul Khadar of Kerala participated in the "Quit India" struggle in 1942 and was hanged; Umar Subhani, an industrialist and millionaire of Bombay provided Gandhi with congress expenses and ultimately gave his life for the cause of independence. Among Muslim women, Hazrat Mahal, Asghari Begum, Bi Amma contributed in the struggle of freedom from the British.

The period starting from 1498 saw the rise of the naval and trading power of the European countries, as they increasingly projected their naval power and expanded their trading interests over the Indian subcontinent. Subsequently with the advent of the Industrial Revolution in Britain and in Europe, the European powers gained a significant technological and commercial advantage over the decaying Mughal Empire. They gradually began increasing their influence on the subcontinent.

Hyder Ali, and later his son Sultan Tipu were early to understand the threat of the British East India Company and resisted it. However, Tipu Sultan was finally defeated at Srirangapatnam in 1799. In Bengal, Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah faced the expansionist aims of the British East India Company and fought the British. However, he lost at the battle of Plassey in 1757. After the First war of Independence, which is popularly known as Sepoy Mutiny of 1857,the upper class Muslims were targeted by the Britishers the most, as under their leadership the war was mostly fought in and around Delhi. Thousands of kith and kins were shot or hanged near the gate of Red Fort, Delhi, which is now known as 'Khooni Darwaza'(the bloody gate). The renowned Urdu poet Mirza Ghalib(1797-1869) has given a vivid description of such massacre in his letters now published by the Oxford University Press 'Ghalib his life and letters'compiled and translated by Ralph Russel and Khurshidul Islam(1994).

As the Muslim power waned with the gradual demise of the Mughal Empire, the Muslims of India faced a new challenge - that of protecting their culture and interests, yet interacting with the alien, technologically advantaged power. In this period, the Ulama of Firangi Mahal, based first at Sehali, District Barabanki, and since 1690s based in Lucknow, educated and guided the Muslims. The Firangi Mahal led and steered the Muslims of India. The moulanas and moulvis (religious teachers) of Darul-uloom, Deoband (UP) also played significant role in freedom struggle of India declaring subjugation of an unjust rule is against Islamic tenets.

Other famous Muslims who fought for freedom under the British Raj: Maulana Azad, Hakeem Ajmal Khan, Hasrat Mohani, Dr. Syed Mahmud, Professor Maulavi Barkatullah, Dr. Zakir Husain , Saifuddin Kichlu, Allama Shibli Nomani, Vakkom Abdul Khadir, Dr. Manzoor Abdul Wahab, Bahadur Shah Zafar, Hakeem Nusrat Husain, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, Samad Achakzai, Colonel Shahnawaz, Dr. M.A.Ansari, Rafi Ahmad Kidwai, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmad, Ansar Harwani, Tak Sherwani, Nawab Viqarul Mulk, Nawab Mohsinul Mulk, Mustsafa Husain, VM Ubaidullah, SR Rahim, Badruddin Tyabjee, and Moulvi Abdul Hamid.

Until the 1930s Muhammad Ali Jinnah was a member of the Indian National Congress and was part of the freedom struggle. Dr. Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal, poet and philosopher, was a strong proponent of Hindu - Muslim unity and an undivdided India until the 1920s.

Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar and Maulana Shaukat Ali struggled for the emancipation of the Muslims in the overall Indian context, and struggled for freedom alongside Mahatama Gandhi and Maulana Abdul Bari of Firangi Mahal. Until the 1930s, the Muslims of India broadly conducted their politics alongside their countrymen, in the overall context of an undivided India.

In the late 1920s, recognising the different perspectives of the Indian National Congress and that of the All India Muslim League, Dr. Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal presented the concept of a separate Muslim homeland in India in the 1930s. Consequently, the All India Muslim League raised the demand for a separate Muslim homeland. This demand was raised in Lahore in 1940 (Known as the Pakistan Resolution). Dr. Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal had passed away by then, and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan,Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, and many others led the Pakistan Movement.

Initially, the demand for separate Muslim homeland(s) was within a framework of a large, independent, undivided India with autonomous regions governed by the Muslims. A number of other options to give the Muslim minority in India adequate protection and political representation in a free, undivided India, were also debated. However, when no common formula leading to early independence of India from the British Raj could be agreed between the Indian National Congress, the All India Muslim League, and the British colonial government, the All India Muslim League pressed unequivocally with its demand for a completely independent, sovereign country, Pakistan.

Law and politics

Muslims in India are governed by "The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937."[30] It directs the application of Muslim Personal Law to Muslims in marriage, mahr (dower), divorce, maintenance, gifts, waqf, wills and inheritance.[31] The courts generally apply the Hanafi Sunni law, with exceptions made only for those areas where Shia law differs substantially from Sunni practice.

Although the Indian constitution provides equal rights to all citizens irrespective of their religion, Article 44 recommends a Uniform civil code. The attempts by successive political leadership in the country to integrate Indian society under common civil code is strongly resisted and is viewed by Indian Muslims as an attempt to dilute the cultural identity of the minority groups of the country. Thus in India there exists the unique situation where proponents of a secular law are deemed fascist while those who support the separate Sharia law for Indian Muslims are considered secular. The All India Muslim Personal Law Board was established for the protection and continued applicability of “Muslim Personal Law” i.e. Shariat Application Act in India.

Hindu-Muslim conflict

See also: Persecution of Muslims
See also: Persecution of Hindus

India has always maintained a constitutional commitment to secularism. Since the colonial period, Hindu-Muslim relations in India have been marred by communal violence.

1947-1991

The aftermath of the Partition of India in 1947 saw large scale sectarian strife and bloodshed throughout the nation. Since then, India has witnessed sporadic large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of the Hindu and Muslim communities. These conflicts also stem from the ideologies of Hindu Nationalism versus Islamic Extremism and prevalent in certain sections of the population.

More Muslims have usually been killed than Hindus in inter-community violence in India, while many Hindus have been persecuted in neighboring Muslim states and in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. In all the communal riots since 1947, factually contested official police records reveal that three-quarters of lives lost and properties destroyed were Muslim, a figure that climbed to 85% during the 2002 riots in Gujarat.[32].

Violence against Hindus East Pakistan, seeing the transmigration of over two million Hindus from 1950 to 1969, and also that of many Urdu speaking Muslims from the newly formed Bangladesh to West Pakistan during and after the 1971 crisis. The birth of Bangladesh witnessed unparalleled violence against Hindus as well when nearly three million Bangladeshis were killed and another 10 million sought refuge in India, the majority of them were Hindu. In addition, Islamist attacks on Hindus in Kashmir such as the Wandhama massacre and Kaluchak Massacre contributed to the rising communal tensions in the region. The ethnic cleansing of the Hindu Kashmiri Pandits from the region by Islamists worsened the situation. The Indian military stationed in Kashmir has been accused by Pakistan, as well as human rights advocacy groups, of atrocities against the Muslim population in the region.

Since 1992

The sense of communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims in the post-partition period has been compromised in the last decade with the razing of the disputed Babri Mosque in Ayodhya. The demolition took place in 1992 and was allegedly perpetrated by the Hindu Nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party and organizations like Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, Bajrang Dal and Vishwa Hindu Parishad. This was followed by tit for tat violence by Muslim and Hindu fundamentalists throughout the country including Bombay with the Bombay Riots and also the 1993 Bombay Bombings, amongst those allegedly involved in these atrocities were the Muslim Mafia don Dawood Ibrahim and the predominantly Muslim D-Company criminal gang.

In 2001 a high profile attack on the Indian Parliament by Islamic militants created considerable strain on community relations.

Some of the most violent events in recent times took place during the infamous Gujarat riots in India where it is estimated one thousand people were killed, most of whom allegedly Muslim, some sources claim there were approximately 2000 Muslim deaths,[33] there were also allegations made of state involvement. [34][35] The riots were in retaliation to the Godhra Train Burning in which 50 Hindus belonging to group called the Vishwa Hindu Parishad, returning from the disputed site of the Babri Mosque, were burnt alive in a train fire at the Godhra railway station. The incident was allegedly a planned act carried out by revengeful and extremist Ghanchi Muslims in the region against the Hindu pilgrims according to Gujarat police.[36] The commission appointed to investigate this finding declared that the fire was an accident. In 2006 the High Court decided the constitution of such a committee was illegal as another inquiry headed by Justice Nanavati Shah was still investigating the matter. [2]. The Nanavati Shah commission has already given it's first report, in last week of September 2008, where it has said that burning of train in Godhra was pre-planned and petrol of large quantity was bought by a group of Muslim people for this purpose.

There was widespread communal violence in which both communities suffered. In these riots, the role played by chief minister of Gujarat, Narendra Modi, and some of his ministers, police officers, and other right wing Hindu organization has been critisized. It was alleged that Gujarat administration,Gujarat police under Narendra Modi, delibaratly targeted Muslims. Narendra Modi was even accused of genocide. But Nanavati commission Report has clarified that all these allegation were wrong. Nanavati Commission has given clean chit to Narendra Modi, his ministers who were accused of violence against Muslims, and also Gujarat police and their officers of any role in riots against Muslims.

Muslim-Hindu conflicts have also been fomented due to the mushrooming of Islamic Extremist organisations like SIMI (Students Islamic Movement of India) whose goal is to establish Islamic rule in India. Other Pakistan based groups such as the Lashkar-e-Toiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed have been fomenting bias in the local Muslim populace against Hindus. These groups are believed by many to be responsible for the 11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings, in which nearly 200 people were killed. Such groups also attacked the Indian Parliament in 2001, declared parts of Indian Kashmir to be Pakistani in 1999 and have orchestrated numerous other attacks including constant attacks in Indian Kashmir and bombings in the Indian capital New Delhi. In the meantime, the toll of innocent Muslims and Hindus at the altar of communal strife continues to mount. [3]

As per Professor M.D. Nalapat (Vice-chairman of the Manipal Advanced Research Group, UNESCO Peace Chair, and professor of geopolitics at Manipal University), the reason for "Hindu - Muslim" conflict is "Hindu Backlash" or "partial" secularism, in which only Hindus are expected to be secular while Muslims and other minorities remain free to practice exclusionary practices. [37].

Muslim-Christian Conflict

For the most part, Muslims and Christians form the same votebank in the left-of-center arena of politics, typically at odds with Hindus. However, in troubled areas of India, Muslims and Christians have come into conflict with each other.

Muslims in India who convert to Christianity are often subjected to harassment, intimidation, and attacks by Muslims. In Kashmir, the only Indian state with a Muslim majority, a Christian convert and missionary named Bashir Tantray was killed , allegedly by militant Islamists in 2006[38].

A Christian priest, K.K. Alavi, who is a convert from Islam, recently raised the ire of his former Muslim community and has received many death threats. An Islamic terrorist group named "The National Development Front" actively campaigned against him.[39].

Prominent Indian Muslims

Muslims are also playing pivotal roles in the advertising industry, film industry (Bollywood), modern art, academics, theatre and sports. Some large industries like Wipro Ltd., Wockhardt, Himalaya health care, Hamdard Laboratories and Mirza Tanners are owned by Muslims.

Muslims are represented in Indian politics. For details on parliamentary representation see Muslims in Parliament of India.

Sachar Committee

According to a recently published report to government, called the Sachar Report, Muslims are heavily under-represented in different government and social areas.[40][41][42] Among other facts, it found that in the state of West Bengal, where Muslims make up 27% of the population, their employment in the government sector was below 3%.

The Sachar report has received substantial backlash, including allegations of bias in the media coverage concerning the report. Indian media expert[43] Dasu Krishnamoorti has criticized the media coverage of the report. He criticizes the claims made in the media, that the fault of the plight of the Muslim lays squarely on the Hindus and the Congress Party, as politically motivated in favor of the Muslim community and encourages "emotional segregation (between Muslims and Hindus) that hardly helps Muslims share the Indian miracle".[44]The report stands criticized for misrepresenting data and figures, bias and "misrepresenting inequities".[45] Leaders of the Bharatiya Janata Party have also criticized the Sacher report as "distorted, politically motivated and dangerous", also pointing out that proposals of special reservation given to Muslims would harm the country, and criticized the UPA Government's endorsement of the report as a snub to their previous efforts to help the Muslim community.[46][47] BJP leader Murli Manohar Joshi said that the tone and texture of the Sachar Committee "has a striking similarity to the Muslim League of pre-independence era. Unfortunately, the government is irrationally following a policy of blind populism which threatens to divide the nation."[46]

Muslim employment in government sectors (according to the Sachar Report)[48]

Area Muslim %
Total 4.9
PSUs 7.2
IAS, IFS, and IPS 3.2
Railways 4.5
Judiciary 7.8
Health 4.4
Transport 6.5
Home affairs 7.3
Education 6.5

Muslim institutes

Aligarh Muslim University

There are several well established Muslim institutes in India. Here is a list of reputed institutes established by Muslims.

Population statistics

Muslims praying by the historic Charminar after filling the Makkah Masjid, congregations of more than two hundred thousand pray on special occasions there.

Islam is India's largest minority religion, with Muslims officially constituting 13.4% of the country's population, or 138 million people as of the 2001 census. However, unofficial estimates claim a far higher figure supposedly discounted in censuses. For instance, in an interview with a well circulated newspaper of India The Hindu Justice K.M. Yusuf, a retired Judge from Calcutta High Court and Chairman of West Bengal Minority Commission, has said that the real percentage of Muslims in India is at least 20%. [4]

pro Hindutva people say in their reports that the Muslim population has reached 30%. [5] [49]

The largest concentrations-about 47% of all Muslims in India, according to the 2001 census--live in the 3 states of Uttar Pradesh (30.7 million) (18.5%), West Bengal (20.2 million) (25%), and Bihar (13.7 million) (16.5%). Muslims represent a majority of the local population only in Jammu and Kashmir (67% in 2001) and Lakshadweep (95%). High concentrations of Muslims are found in the eastern states of Assam (31%) and West Bengal (25%), and in the southern state of Kerala (24.7%) and Karnataka (12.2%). Muslims are generally more educated, urban, integrated and prosperous in the Western and Southern states of India than in the Northern and Eastern ones; this could be due to partition when the more affluent and educated population migrated over the border, to Pakistan in the North and Bangladesh (then East Pakistan) in the East. India has the third largest Muslim population (after Indonesia and Pakistan) and also the second largest Shia Muslim population (after Iran) in the world.

The analysis on religious data, among the six major religious communities, shows that the decadal growth of the Muslims was the highest (36.0%) in the 2001 census. This statistic suggested that while the growth rate for Hindus has fallen between 1991 and 2001 compared with 1981 and 1991, Muslims have actually grown faster in the last decade, this led Indian media[50] and different parties raising an alarm at the growing number of Muslims and expressing concern about the demographic imbalance and overpopulation, which the Indian government is desperately trying to stop democratically.[51]

A grave objection to this theory is the fact that the 1991 census did not include Jammu & Kashmir, the only Muslim majority state and strife-torn Assam, while the 2001 census does include Jammu & Kashmir. Adjusted for this, the Muslim growth rate plunges from 36 per cent to 29.3 per cent.

Muslim population in Indian states according to 2001 Census.[52]

State Population Percentage
Lakshadweep 57,903 95.4707
Jammu & Kashmir 6,793,240 66.9700
Assam 8,240,611 30.9152
West Bengal 20,240,543 25.2451
Kerala 7,863,842 24.6969
Uttar Pradesh 30,740,158 18.4961
Bihar 13,722,048 16.5329
Jharkhand 3,731,308 13.8474
Karnataka 6,463,127 12.2291
Uttaranchal 1,012,141 11.9225
Delhi 1,623,520 11.7217
Maharashtra 10,270,485 10.6014
Andhra Pradesh 6,986,856 9.1679
Gujarat 4,592,854 9.0641
Manipur 190,939 8.8121
Rajasthan 4,788,227 8.4737
Andaman & Nicobar Islands 29,265 8.2170
Tripura 254,442 7.9533
Daman & Diu 12,281 7.7628
Goa 92,210 6.8422
Madhya Pradesh 3,841,449 6.3655
Pondicherry 59,358 6.0921
Haryana 1,222,916 5.7836
Tamil Nadu 3,470,647 5.5614
Meghalaya 99,169 4.2767
Chandigarh 35,548 3.9470
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 6,524 2.9589
Orissa 761,985 2.0703
Chhattisgarh 409,615 1.9661
Himachal Pradesh 119,512 1.9663
Arunachal Pradesh 20,675 1.8830
Nagaland 35,005 1.7590
Punjab 382,045 1.5684
Sikkim 7,693 1.4224
Mizoram 10,099 1.1365

Percentage distribution of population (adjusted) by religious communities : India – 1961 to 2001 Census (excluding Assam and J&K).[53]

Year Percentage
1951 10.1%
1971 10.4%
1981 11.9%
1991 12.0%
2001 12.8%

Percentage distribution (unadjusted) of population by religious communities India - 1961 to 2001 Census (without excluding Assam and J&K).[54]

Year Percentage
1961 10.7%
1971 11.2%
1981 12.0%
1991 12.8%
2001 13.4%
Table : Census information for 2001: Hindu and Muslim compared[α][β]
Composition Hindus[55] Muslims[56]
 % total of population 2001 80.5 13.4
10-Yr Growth % (est '91–'01)[57][β] 20.3 36.0
Sex ratio* (avg. 933) 931 936
Literacy rate (avg. 64.8) 65.1 59.1
Work Participation Rate 40.4 31.3
Rural sex ratio[57] 944 953
Urban sex ratio[57] 894 907
Child sex ratio (0–6 yrs) 925 950

Islamic traditions in South Asia

Majority of Muslims in India are Sunni Barelwi School. India Today in its recent report says

The Barelvi school to which over two-thirds of India's 15 crore Muslims subscribe to and who follow the Islam enriched by its contact with fertile local cultures, revere the Prophet and revel in Sufi traditions like dargah visit, music and mysticism.[58]

Manzar-e-Islam Bareilly and Al Jamiatul Ashrafia are most famous Seminary of Barelwi Muslims. Darul-Uloom Deoband is the most influential Deobandi seminary in India. Sufism is a mystical path (tarika) as distinct from the legalistic path of the sharia. A Sufi attains a direct vision of oneness with God, often on the edges of orthodox behavior, and can thus become a Pir (living saint) who may take on disciples (murids) and set up a spiritual lineage that can last for generations. Orders of Sufis became important in India during the thirteenth century following the ministry of Moinuddin Chishti (1142-1236), who settled in Ajmer, Rajasthan, and attracted large numbers of converts to Islam because of his holiness. His Chishtiyya order went on to become the most influential Sufi lineage in India, although other orders from Central Asia and Southwest Asia also reached to India and played a major role in the spread of Islam. In this way, they created a large literature in regional languages that embedded Islamic culture deeply into older South Asian traditions.

The leadership of the Muslim community pursued various directions in the evolution of Indian Islam during the twentieth century. The most conservative wing has typically rested on the education system provided by the hundreds of religious training institutes (madrasa) throughout the country, which have tended to stress the study of the Qur'an and Islamic texts in Arabic and Persian but little else. Several national movements have emerged from this sector of the Muslim community. The Jamaati Islami (Islamic Party), founded in 1941, advocates the establishment of an overtly Islamic government. The Tablighi Jamaat (Outreach Society) became active after the 1940s as a movement, primarily among the ulema (religious leaders), stressing personal renewal, prayer, a missionary spirit, and attention to orthodoxy. It has been highly critical of the kind of activities that occur in and around Sufi shrines and remains a minor if respected force in the training of the ulema. Conversely, other ulema have upheld the legitimacy of mass religion, including exaltation of pirs and the memory of the Prophet. A powerful secularising drive led by Syed Ahmad Khan resulted in the foundation of Aligarh Muslim University (1875 as the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College)-with a broader, more modern curriculum, and other major Muslim universities.

Indo Islamic art and architecture

The Masjid-i-Jahan Numa
Charminar
Taj Mahal mosque or masjid
The Khas Mahal.
Jehangiri Mahal.
The Delhi Fort, also known as the Red Fort, is one of the popular tourist destinations in Delhi.
The Taj Mahal

Indian architecture took new shape with the advent of Islamic rule in India towards the end of the 12th century AD. New elements were introduced into the Indian architecture that include: use of shapes (instead of natural forms); inscriptional art using decorative lettering or calligraphy; inlay decoration and use of coloured marble, painted plaster and brightly coloured glazed tiles.

In contrast to the indigenous Indian architecture which was of the trabeate order i.e. all spaces were spanned by means of horizontal beams, the Islamic architecture was arcuate i.e. an arch or dome was adopted as a method of bridging a space. The concept of arch or dome was not invented by the Muslims but was, in fact, borrowed and further perfected by them from the architectural styles of the post-Roman period. Muslims used a cementing agent in the form of mortar for the first time in the construction of buildings in India. They further put to use certain scientific and mechanical formulae, which were derived by experience of other civilizations, in their constructions in India. Such use of scientific principles helped not only in obtaining greater strength and stability of the construction materials but also provided greater flexibility to the architects and builders. One fact that must be stressed here is that, the Islamic elements of architecture had already passed through different experimental phases in other countries like Egypt, Iran and Iraq before these were introduced in India. Unlike most Islamic monuments in these countries, which were largely constructed in brick, plaster and rubble, the Indo-Islamic monuments were typical mortar-masonry works formed of dressed stones. It must be emphasized that the development of the Indo-Islamic architecture was greatly facilitated by the knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian craftsmen, who had mastered the art of stonework for centuries and used their experience while constructing Islamic monuments in India.

Islamic architecture in India can be divided into two parts: religious and secular. Mosques and Tombs represent the religious architecture, while palaces and forts are examples of secular Islamic architecture. Forts were essentially functional, complete with a little township within and various fortifications to engage and repel the enemy.

Mosques: The mosque or masjid is a representation of Muslim art in its simplest form. The mosque is basically an open courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah, crowned off with a dome. A mihrab indicates the direction of the qibla for prayer. Towards the right of the mihrab stands the mimbar or pulpit from where the Imam presides over the proceedings. An elevated platform, usually a minaret from where the Faithful are summoned to attend prayers is an invariable part of a mosque. Large mosques where the faithful assemble for the Friday prayers are called the Jama Masjids.

Tombs: Although not actually religious in nature, the tomb or maqbara introduced an entirely new architectural concept. While the masjid was mainly known for its simplicity, a tomb could range from being a simple affair (Aurangazeb’s grave) to an awesome structure enveloped in grandeur (Taj Mahal). The tomb usually consists of a solitary compartment or tomb chamber known as the huzrah in whose centre is the cenotaph or zarih. This entire structure is covered with an elaborate dome. In the underground chamber lies the mortuary or the maqbara, in which the corpse is buried in a grave or qabr. Smaller tombs may have a mihrab, although larger mausoleums have a separate mosque located at a distance from the main tomb. Normally the whole tomb complex or rauza is surrounded by an enclosure. The tomb of a Muslim saint is called a dargah. Almost all Islamic monuments were subjected to free use of verses from the Holy Quran and a great amount of time was spent in carving out minute details on walls, ceilings, pillars and domes.

Islamic architecture in India can be classified into three sections: Delhi or the Imperial style (1191 to 1557AD); the Provincial style, encompassing the surrounding areas like Jaunpur and the Deccan; and the Mughal style (1526 to 1707AD).[59]

Literature

See also

References

  1. ↑ Indian Census
  2. ↑ [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90228.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2007 - India]
  3. ↑ Indian Census 2001 - Religion
  4. ↑ CIA's The World Factbook - India
  5. ↑ Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs - Background Note: India
  6. ↑ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4235999.stm India's Muslims face up to rifts
  7. ↑ http://www.cfr.org/publication/13659/indias_muslim_population.html India's Muslim population
  8. ↑ ISBN 81-86050-79-5 Ancient and Medieval History of India
  9. ↑ ISBN 983915480X
  10. ↑ Sturrock, J.,South Canara and Madras District Manual (2 vols., Madras, 1894-1895)
  11. ↑ ISBN 81-85843-05-8 Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV
  12. ↑ http://www.jaihoon.com/watan/indarbmappilacommunity.htm -Genesis and Growth of the Mappila Community]
  13. ↑ -Cheraman Juma Masjid A Secular Heritage
  14. ↑ Bahrain tribune World’s second oldest mosque is in India
  15. ↑ -A mosque from a Hindu king
  16. ↑ - Genesis and Growth of the Mappila Community
  17. ↑ Saliba, George (2007). Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-19557-7. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 der Veer, pg 27-29
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Eaton, Richard M. The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1993 1993.Online version last accessed on 1 May 2007
  20. ↑ Durant, Will. "The Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage" (page 459). 
  21. ↑ Elst, Koenraad (2006-08-25). "Was there an Islamic "Genocide" of Hindus?", Kashmir Herald. Retrieved on 2006-08-25. 
  22. ↑ Sarkar, Jadunath. How the Muslims forcibly converted the Hindus of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh to Islam. 
  23. ↑ Caste in Indian Muslim Society
  24. ↑ Aggarwal, Patrap (1978). Caste and Social Stratification Among Muslims in India. Manohar. 
  25. ↑ Maddison, Angus (2006). The Contours of the World Economy 1-2030 AD. Oxford University Press. 
  26. ↑ Biraben, Jean-Noël (2003). "The rising numbers of humankind", Populations & Societies 394.
  27. ↑ Islam and the sub-continent - appraising its impact
  28. ↑ Radiance viewsweekly. Vol. XLVI No.8, 2008-05-25. New Delhi
  29. ↑ References: J. P. Mulliner. Rise of Islam in India. University of Leeds chpt. 9. Page 215
  30. ↑ The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937 Vakilno1.com
  31. ↑ India, Republic of Emory School of Law
  32. ↑ India's Great Divide. Retrieved on April 4, 2007.
  33. ↑ India's Great Divide. Retrieved on April 4, 2007.
  34. ↑ India's Great Divide. Retrieved on April 4, 2007.
  35. ↑ Demand for CBI probe into Zaheera's u-turn.The Hindu. Retrieved on April 4, 2007.
  36. ↑ Still a burning question
  37. ↑ A Hindu backlash hits Sonia Gandhi - upiasiaonline.com
  38. ↑ Christian convert from Islam shot dead in Kashmir,SperoNews
  39. ↑ Convert from Islam in India Remains on Death List,Christian Examiner
  40. ↑ Summarised Sachar Report on Status of Indian Muslims
  41. ↑ Sachar report to be implemented in full
  42. ↑ The Missing Muslim, the Sunday Express. Full coverage on Sachar Report
  43. ↑ Welcome to Dasu Krishnamoorthy Media Site
  44. ↑ Media Response to Sachar Report, Dasu Krishnamoorthy
  45. ↑ Sachar Report, Myth and reality,'Rediff.com
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 BJP criticized govt on Sachar report,Rediff.com
  47. ↑ BJP leader criticized Sachar report,The Hindu
  48. ↑ Frontline Magazine, pay. Hindu.com. This article is based on Sachar Report.
  49. ↑ [1], although the Hindutva organizations generally gain from portraying the Muslims as a demographic threat. [Anand, Dibyesh, The Violence of Security: Hindu Nationalism and the Politics of Representing 'the Muslim' as a Danger, The Round Table, Vol. 94, No. 379 (April 2005): 208]
  50. ↑ The Muslim growth rate and the media
  51. ↑ - The population bogey Frontline Coverstory Volume 21 - Issue 20, Sept. 25 - Oct. 08, 2004
  52. ↑ Indian Census 2001 - Religion
  53. ↑ Indian Census
  54. ↑ Indian Census
  55. ↑ "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Hindus" (PDF). Census of India 2001: DATA ON RELIGION. Office of the Registrar General, India. Retrieved on 2007-04-17.
  56. ↑ "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Muslims" (PDF). Census of India 2001: DATA ON RELIGION. Office of the Registrar General, India. Retrieved on 2007-04-17.
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 "A snapshot of population size, distribution, growth and socio economic characteristics of religious communities from Census 2001" (PDF). Census of India 2001: DATA ON RELIGION pp1–9. Office of the Registrar General, India. Retrieved on 2007-04-20.
  58. ↑ http://indiatoday.digitaltoday.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=12343&Itemid=1&issueid=67&limit=1&limitstart=0
  59. ↑ (Courtesy: Culturopedia.com)

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