Iraq War
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The Iraq War, also known as the Second Gulf War or the Occupation of Iraq,[33] is an ongoing military campaign which began on March 20, 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by a multinational force led by and composed largely of United States and United Kingdom troops. The force was supported by smaller contingents from Australia, Denmark, Poland and other nations. All of the Arab states and a number of members of the NATO alliance did not publicly support the invasion, while some Eastern European states did.[34]
Prior to the war, Iraq's alleged possession of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) was claimed to pose a serious and imminent threat to the security of the United States and its coalition allies.[35][36] This assessment was supported by the U.K. intelligence services, but not by other countries such as France, Russia and Germany.[37][38][39] United Nations weapons inspectors found no evidence of WMD, giving support to earlier criticism of poor intelligence on Iraqi WMDs.[40] After the invasion, the U.S.-led Iraq Survey Group concluded that Iraq had ended its WMD programs in 1991 and had no active programs at the time of the invasion, but that they intended to resume production if the Iraq sanctions were lifted.[41] Although some degraded remnants of misplaced or abandoned chemical weapons from before 1991 were found, they were not the weapons for which the coalition invaded.[42] The failure to find WMD in Iraq caused controversy, particularly in the United States.[43] Some U.S. officials also accused Saddam Hussein of harboring and supporting Al-Qaeda,[44] but no evidence of any collaborative relationship was ever found.[45][46] Bush reportedly told Palestinian officials either that God inspired him to end the tyranny in Iraq, or to hit Saddam.[47] Other reasons for the invasion stated by U.S. officials included Iraq's alleged financial support for the families of Palestinian suicide bombers,[48] Iraqi government human rights abuses,[49] spreading democracy,[50] and Iraq's oil reserves,[51][52][53][54] although that was denied by other officials.[55][56][57]
The invasion led to the quick defeat of the Iraqi military, and the eventual capture and execution of Saddam Hussein. The U.S.-led coalition occupied Iraq and attempted to establish a new democratic government; however, violence against coalition forces and among various sectarian groups soon led to asymmetric warfare with the Iraqi insurgency, strife between many Sunni and Shia Iraqi groups, and al-Qaeda operations in Iraq.[58][59] Estimates of the number of Iraqis killed through 2007 range from 150,000[29] to more than 1,000,000.[26] UNHCR estimates the war created 4.7 million Iraqi refugees through April 2008 (about 16% of the population of Iraq.)[60] The U.S. Department of Defense claimed in 2008 that "the security, political and economic trends in Iraq continue to be positive, however, they remain fragile, reversible and uneven."[61] Iraq was fifth on the 2008 Failed States Index,[62] and the Red Cross stated in 2008 that Iraq's humanitarian situation "remains among the most critical in the world".[63] Member nations of the Coalition began to withdraw their forces as public opinion favoring troop withdrawals increased in their countries and Iraq and as Iraqi forces began to take responsibility for security.[64][65]
On November 27, 2008, the Iraqi Parliament ratified a Status of Forces Agreement with the United States, providing a legal basis for U.S. troops in Iraq and establishing their departure from Iraq by December 31, 2011 pending any negotiations. The pact also places some restrictions on coalition forces operating in Iraq.[66] Some groups of Iraqis protested the passing of the accord,[67][68] and a representative of Grand Ayatollah Ali Husseini al-Sistani expressed concern the ratified version of the pact would grant the occupiers immunity from prosecution in Iraqi courts among other things.[69] A referendum will be held in mid-2009, which may terminate the agreement and require Coalition forces to completely leave by the middle of 2010.[70] Parliament also passed another U.S.-Iraqi bilateral pact called the Strategic Framework Agreement,[71] aimed at ensuring constitutional ethnic, religious, and gender rights. The pact also aims to ensure cooperation in the areas of threat deterrence, education, energy development, environmental hygiene, health care, information technology, communications and law enforcement.[72]
1991–2000: U.N. inspectors, no-fly zones, and Iraqi opposition groups
- See also: Oil-for-Food Programme and Operation Northern Watch
Following the 1991 Gulf War, the United Nations Security Council Resolution 687 mandated that Iraqi chemical, biological, nuclear, and long range missile programs be halted and all such weapons destroyed under United Nations Special Commission control. U.N. weapons inspectors inside Iraq were able to verify the destruction of a large amount of WMD-material, but substantial issues remained unresolved in 1998 when the inspectors left Iraq due to then current UNSCOM head Richard Butler's belief that U.S. and UK military action was imminent. Shortly after the inspectors withdrew, the U.S. and UK launched a four-day bombing campaign. Also, during this period the US congress and President Clinton issued a resolution calling for regime change in Iraq.
In addition to the inspection regimen, the U.S. and UK (along with France until 1998) engaged in a low-level conflict with Iraq by enforcing northern and southern Iraqi no-fly zones. These zones were created following the Persian Gulf War to protect Iraqi Kurdistan in the north and the southern Shia areas, and were seen by the Iraqi government as an infringement of Iraq's sovereignty. The no-fly zones prohibited unauthorized fixed-wing aircraft but allowed Iraqi helicopters or limited Turkish bombing runs[73][74]. Iraqi air-defense installations and American and British air patrols regularly exchanged fire during this five year period.
Approximately one year before Operation Iraqi Freedom, the U.S. initiated Operation Southern Focus as a change to its response strategy, by increasing the overall number of missions and selecting targets throughout the no-fly zones in order to disrupt the military command structure in Iraq. The weight of bombs dropped on Iraq increased from none in March 2002 and 0.3 short tons (0.27 t) in April to between 8 short tons (7.3 t) to 14 short tons (13 t) per month in May-August. The total reached a pre-war peak of 54.6 short tons (49.5 t) in September 2002.
Iraqi opposition groups
Following the Gulf War, President George H. W. Bush signed a presidential finding directing the Central Intelligence Agency to create conditions for Hussein's removal in May 1991. Coordinating anti-Saddam groups was an important element of this strategy and the Iraqi National Congress (INC), led by Ahmed Chalabi, was the main group tasked with this purpose. The name INC was reportedly coined by public relations expert John Rendon (of the Rendon Group agency) and the group received millions in covert funding in the 1990s, and then about $8 million a year in overt funding after the passage of the Iraq Liberation Act in 1998. Another opposition group was the Iraqi National Accord which continues to have influence in the current Iraqi government through its leader Ayad Allawi.
Presidential involvement
In late April 1993, the United States learned that Saddam Hussein had attempted to have former President George H. W. Bush assassinated during a visit to Kuwait on April 16.[75] On June 16, as per order of then-President Clinton, a cruise missile was shot at the Iraq Intelligence Service building in downtown Baghdad, by way of retaliation. Clinton briefed President-elect George W. Bush in December 2000, expressing his regret that the world's two most dangerous individuals, including Saddam, were still at large. He warned that Saddam will "cause you a world of problems."[76]
2001–2003: Iraq disarmament crisis and pre-war intelligence
- See also: Rationale for the Iraq War, Public relations preparations for 2003 invasion of Iraq, Governments' pre-war positions on invasion of Iraq, Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda, 10 Days to War, and Iraq and weapons of mass destruction
According to documents provided by former Treasury Secretary Paul O'Neill, Bush instructed his aides to look for a way to overthrow the Iraqi regime ten days after taking office in January, 2001. A secret memo entitled, "Plan for post-Saddam Iraq," was discussed in January and February of 2001, and a Pentagon document, dated March 5, 2001, and entitled "Foreign Suitors for Iraqi Oilfield contracts," included a map of potential areas for exploration.[77]
U.N. weapons inspections resume
The issue of Iraq's disarmament reached a crisis in 2002-2003, when President Bush demanded a complete end to alleged Iraqi production of weapons of mass destruction and full compliance with UN Resolutions requiring UN weapons inspectors unfettered access to suspected weapons production facilities. Previously, the UN had prohibited Iraq from developing or possessing such weapons after the Gulf War and required Iraq to permit inspections confirming compliance.
During 2002, Bush repeatedly backed demands for unfettered inspection and disarmament with threats of military force. In accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 1441 Iraq reluctantly agreed to new inspections in late 2002. The results of these inspections were mixed, with the inspectors discovering no WMD programs but concluding that Iraqi declarations failed to prove that all such weapons had been properly destroyed.
Iraq's WMD controversy
In the initial stages of the war on terror, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), under George Tenet, was rising to prominence as the lead agency in the Afghanistan war. But when Tenet insisted in his personal meetings with President Bush that there was no connection between Al Qaeda and Iraq, Vice-President Dick Cheney and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld initiated a secret program to re-examine the evidence and marginalize the CIA and Tenet. A major part of this program was a Pentagon unit known as the Office of Special Plans (OSP), which was created by Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz and headed by Douglas Feith. It was created to supply senior Bush administration officials with raw intelligence pertaining to Iraq, unvetted by intelligence analysts, and circumventing traditional intelligence gathering operations by the CIA. The questionable intelligence acquired by the OSP was "stovepiped" to Cheney and presented to the public. In some cases, Cheney’s office would leak the intelligence to news correspondents, who would in turn cover it in such outlets such as The New York Times. Cheney would subsequently appear on the Sunday political television talk shows to discuss the intelligence, referencing The New York Times as the source to give it credence.[78]
Prior to the Gulf War, in 1990, Iraq had stockpiled 550 short tons (500 t) of yellowcake uranium at the Tuwaitha nuclear complex about 20 kilometres (12 mi) south of Baghdad.[79] In late February 2002, the CIA sent former Ambassador Joseph Wilson to investigate reports that Iraq was attempting to purchase additional yellowcake from Niger. Wilson returned and informed the CIA that reports of yellowcake sales to Iraq were "unequivocally wrong." The Bush administration, however, continued to allege Iraq's attempts to obtain additional yellowcake were a justification for military action - most prominently in the January, 2003 State of the Union address when President Bush said that Iraq had sought uranium, citing British intelligence sources.[80] In response, Wilson wrote a critical New York Times op-ed piece in June 2003 stating that he had personally investigated claims of yellowcake purchases and believed them to be fraudulent. Wilson's report did not clarify the matter for analysts, but they found it interesting that the former Nigerien Prime Minister said an Iraqi delegation had visited Niger for what he believed was to discuss uranium sales.[81] Shortly after Wilson's op-ed, the identity of Wilson's wife, undercover CIA analyst Valerie Plame, was revealed in a column by Robert Novak. Since it is a felony to reveal the identity of a CIA agent Novak's column launched an investigation by the Justice Department into the source of the leak. In March, 2007, Dick Cheney’s Chief of Staff I. Lewis 'Scooter' Libby was convicted of perjury in the Plame leak investigation. The source of the leak was found to be former deputy secretary of state Richard Armitage, who was never charged with the crime.[82] In June 2008, Representative Henry Waxman called on the Justice Department to release unredacted transcripts of the FBI interviews in which Libby stated that it was "possible" that Vice President Cheney instructed him to release the information to the press.[83]
On May 1, 2005 the "Downing Street memo" was published in The Sunday Times. It contained an overview of a secret July 23, 2002 meeting among UK Labour government, defense, and intelligence figures who discussed the build-up to the Iraq war — including direct references to classified U.S. policy of the time. The memo stated, "Bush wanted to remove Saddam, through military action, justified by the conjunction of terrorism and WMD. But the intelligence and facts were being fixed around the policy."[84]
On September 18, 2002, George Tenet briefed Bush that Saddam Hussein did not have weapons of mass destruction. Bush dismissed this top-secret intelligence from Saddam's inner circle which was approved by two senior CIA officers, but it turned out to be completely accurate. The information was never shared with Congress or even CIA agents examining whether Saddam had such weapons.[85] The CIA had contacted Saddam Hussein's foreign minister, Naji Sabri, who was being paid by the French as an agent. Sabri informed them that Saddam had ambitions for a nuclear program but that it was not active, and that no biological weapons were being produced or stockpiled, although research was underway.[86]
In September 2002, the Bush administration, the CIA and the DIA said attempts by Iraq to acquire high-strength aluminum tubes, which were prohibited under the UN monitoring program, pointed to a clandestine effort to make enriched uranium for nuclear bombs.[87] This analysis was opposed by the Department of Energy (DOE) and INR which was significant because of DOE's expertise in gas centrifuges and nuclear weapons programs. The DOE and INR argued that such tubes were poorly suited for centrifuges.[88] An effort by the DOE to change Powell's comments before his UN appearance was rebuffed by the administration.[89][90] Indeed, Colin Powell, in his address to the U.N. Security Council just prior to the war, made reference to the aluminum tubes. But a report released by the Institute for Science and International Security in 2002 reported that it was highly unlikely that the tubes could be used to enrich uranium. Powell later admitted he had presented an inaccurate case to the United Nations on Iraqi weapons, and the intelligence he was relying on was, in some cases, "deliberately misleading."[91][92][93] Shortly after the United States presidential election, 2008, and the election of rivial democratic party nominee Barack Obama, president Bush admitted that "[my] biggest regret of all the presidency has to have been the intelligence failure in Iraq".[94]
Authorization for the use of force
In October 2002, a few days before the U.S. Senate voted on the Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq, about 75 senators were told in closed session that Saddam Hussein had the means of attacking the eastern seaboard of the U.S. with biological or chemical weapons delivered by unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs.)[36] On February 5, 2003, Colin Powell presented further evidence in his Iraqi WMD program presentation to the UN Security Council that UAVs were ready to be launched against the U.S. At the time, there was a vigorous dispute within the US military and intelligence community as to whether CIA conclusions about Iraqi UAVs were accurate.[95] The U.S. Air Force agency most familiar with UAVs denied that Iraq possessed any offensive UAV capability, saying the few they had were designed for surveillance and intended for reconnaissance.[96] In fact, Iraq's UAV fleet was never deployed and consisted of a handful of outdated 24.5-foot (7.5 m) wingspan drones with no room for more than a camera and video recorder, and no offensive capability.[97] Despite this controversy, the Senate voted to approve the Joint Resolution on October 11, 2002 providing the Bush Administration with the legal basis for the U.S. invasion.
With the support of large bipartisan majorities, the US Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002. The resolution asserts the authorization by the Constitution of the United States and the United States Congress for the President to fight anti-United States terrorism. Citing the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998, the resolution reiterated that it should be the policy of the United States to remove the Saddam Hussein regime and promote a democratic replacement. The resolution "supported" and "encouraged" diplomatic efforts by President George W. Bush to "strictly enforce through the U.N. Security Council all relevant Security Council resolutions regarding Iraq" and "obtain prompt and decisive action by the Security Council to ensure that Iraq abandons its strategy of delay, evasion, and noncompliance and promptly and strictly complies with all relevant Security Council resolutions regarding Iraq." The resolution authorized President Bush to use the Armed Forces of the United States "as he determines to be necessary and appropriate" in order to "defend the national security of the United States against the continuing threat posed by Iraq; and enforce all relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions regarding Iraq."
Chief UN weapons inspector Hans Blix remarked in January 2003 that "Iraq appears not to have come to a genuine acceptance – not even today – of the disarmament, which was demanded of it and which it needs to carry out to win the confidence of the world and to live in peace."[98] Among other things he noted that 1,000 short tons (910 t) of chemical agent were unaccounted for, information on Iraq's VX nerve agent program was missing, and that "no convincing evidence" was presented for the destruction of 8,500 litres (1,900 imp gal/2,200 US gal) of anthrax that had been declared.[98] Secretary of State Collin Powell's presentation to the U.N. on February 3, 2003 was designed to influence U.N. members that Saddam had weapons of mass destruction. France even believed that Saddam had stockpiles of anthrax and botulism toxin, and the ability to produce VX.[99] But in March, Blix said no evidence of WMDs had been found, and progress had been made in inspections.[40]
In early 2003, the U.S., UK, and Spain proposed the so-called "eighteenth resolution" to give Iraq a deadline for compliance with previous resolutions enforced by the threat of military action. This proposed resolution was subsequently withdrawn due to lack of support on the UN Security Council. In particular, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) members France, Germany and Canada together with Russia, were opposed to military intervention in Iraq due to the high level of risk to the international community's security and defended disarmament through diplomacy.[100][101]
Opposition to invasion
- Further information: criticism of the Iraq War, legitimacy of the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and legality of the Iraq War
On January 20, 2003, French Foreign Minister Dominique de Villepin declared "we believe that military intervention would be the worst solution."[102] Meanwhile anti-war groups across the world organised public protests. According to French academic Dominique Reynié between January 3 and April 12, 2003, 36 million people across the globe took part in almost 3,000 protests against war in Iraq, the demonstrations on February 15, 2003 being the largest and most prolific.[103]
In February 2003, the U.S. Army's top general, Eric Shinseki, told the Senate Armed Services Committee that it would take "several hundred thousand soldiers" to secure Iraq.[104] Two days later, Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld said the post-war troop commitment would be less than the number of troops required to win the war and, "the idea that it would take several hundred thousand U.S. forces is far from the mark." Deputy Defense Secretary Paul Wolfowitz said Shineski's estimate was "way off the mark," because other countries would take part in an occupying force.[105]
In March 2003, Hans Blix reported that, "No evidence of proscribed activities have so far been found," in Iraq, saying that progress was made in inspections which would continue.[40] But the U.S. government announced that "diplomacy has failed" and that it would proceed with a coalition of allied countries, named the "coalition of the willing", to rid Iraq of its alleged weapons of mass destruction. The U.S. government abruptly advised U.N. weapons inspectors to immediately pull out of Baghdad.
There were also serious legal questions surrounding the launching of the war against Iraq and the Bush Doctrine of preemptive war. On September 16, 2004 Kofi Annan, the Secretary General of the United Nations, said of the invasion, "I have indicated it was not in conformity with the U.N. charter. From our point of view, from the charter point of view, it was illegal."[106]
In November 2008 Lord Bingham, the former UK Law Lord, described the war a serious violation of international law, and accused Britain and the US of acting like a "world vigilante". He also criticized the post-invasion record of Britain as "an occupying power in Iraq". Regarding the treatment of Iraqi detainees in Abu Ghraib, Bingham said: "Particularly disturbing to proponents of the rule of law is the cynical lack of concern for international legality among some top officials in the Bush administration."[107]
2003: Invasion
- See also: Coalition military operations of the Iraq War and Iraq War order of battle
The first CIA team entered Iraq on July 10, 2002.[108] This team was composed of members of the CIA's famed Special Activities Division and was later joined by members of the U.S. Military's elite Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC).[109] Together, they prepared for the invasion of conventional U.S. Military forces. These efforts consisted of getting several Iraqi Divisions to surrender rather than oppose the invasion and to identify all of the initial leadership targets during very high risk reconaissance missions.[109] Most importantly, their efforts organized the Kurdish Peshmerga to become the northern front of the invasion. Together this force defeated Ansar al-Islam in Northern Iraq prior to the invasion and than defeated Saddam's forces in the north.[109][110] The battle against Ansar al-Islam led to the death of a substantial number of terrorists and the uncovering of a chemical weapons facility at Sargat. These terrorists would have been in the subsequent insurgency had they not been eliminated. This battle may have been the Tora Bora of Iraq in some ways, but it was a defeat for Ansar al-Islam and their ally Al Qaeda.[111][108]
At 5:34 AM Baghdad time on March 20, 2003 (9:34 p.m., March 19 EST) the military invasion of Iraq began.[112] The 2003 invasion of Iraq, led by U.S. Army General Tommy Franks, began under the codename "Operation Iraqi liberation",[113] later renamed "Operation Iraqi Freedom", the UK codename Operation Telic, and the Australian codename Operation Falconer. Coalition forces also cooperated with Kurdish Peshmerga forces in the north. Approximately forty other nations, the "coalition of the willing," participated by providing troops, equipment, services, security, and special forces.
The military objectives of the invasion were; end the Hussein regime; eliminate weapons of mass destruction; eliminate Islamic terrorists; obtain intelligence on terrorist networks; distribute humanitarian aid; secure Iraq’s oil infrastructure; and assist in creating a representative government as a model for other Middle East nations.[112]
The invasion was a quick and decisive operation encountering major resistance, though not what the American, British and other forces expected. The Iraqi regime had prepared to fight both a conventional and irregular war at the same time, conceding territory when faced with superior conventional forces, largely armored, but launching smaller scale attacks in the rear using fighters dressed in civilian and para-military clothes. This achieved some temporary successes and created unexpected challenges for the invading forces, especially the Americans. In the north, OIF-1 used the largest special operations force since the successful attack on the Taliban in Afghanistan just over a year earlier. The Iraqi Army was quickly overwhelmed in each engagement it faced with the Americans, with the elite Fedayeen Saddam putting up strong, sometimes suicidal, resistance before melting away into the civilian population.
On April 9 Baghdad fell, ending Saddam's 24-year rule. U.S. forces seized the deserted Baath Party ministries and helped tear down a huge iron statue of Saddam, photos and video of which became symbolic of the event, although later controversial. In November 2008, Iraqis staged a similar tearing down and burning of a statue of George Bush.[114] The abrupt fall of Baghdad was accompanied by a widespread outpouring of gratitude toward the Americans, British and their allies, but also massive civil disorder, including the looting of government buildings and drastically increased crime to due an absence of law and order.[115][116] According to The Pentagon, 250,000 short tons (230,000 t) (of 650,000 short tons (590,000 t) total) of ordnance was looted, providing a significant source of ammunition for the Iraqi insurgency. The invasion phase concluded when Tikrit, Saddam's home town, fell with little resistance to the Marines of Task Force Tripoli and on April 15 the coalition declared the invasion effectively over.
In the invasion phase of the war (March 19-April 30), 9,200 Iraqi combatants were killed along with 7,299 civilians, primarily by U.S. air and ground forces.[117] Coalition forces reported the death in combat of 139 U.S. military personnel[118] and 33 UK military personnel.[119]
Coalition Provisional Authority and Iraq Survey Group
- See also: Iraqi Governing Council, International Advisory and Monitoring Board, CPA Program Review Board, Development Fund for Iraq, and Reconstruction of Iraq
Shortly after the invasion, the multinational coalition created the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) سلطة الائتلاف الموحدة, based in the Green Zone, as a transitional government of Iraq until the establishment of a democratic government. Citing United Nations Security Council Resolution 1483 (May 22, 2003) and the laws of war, the CPA vested itself with executive, legislative, and judicial authority over the Iraqi government from the period of the CPA's inception on April 21, 2003, until its dissolution on June 28, 2004.
The CPA was originally headed by Jay Garner, a former U.S. military officer, but his appointment lasted only until May 11, 2003 when President Bush appointed L. Paul Bremer. He served until the CPA's dissolution in July 2004.
Another group created by the multinational force in Iraq post-invasion was the 1,400-member international Iraq Survey Group who conducted a fact-finding mission to find Iraqi weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programmes. In 2004 the ISG's Duelfer Report[120] stated that Iraq did not have a viable WMD program.
Post-invasion phase
- Further information: U.S. list of most-wanted Iraqis and Terrorist attacks of the Iraq War
On May 1, 2003, President Bush staged a dramatic visit to the aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln operating a few miles west of San Diego, California. The visit climaxed at sunset with Bush's now well-known "Mission Accomplished" speech. In this nationally televised speech, delivered before the sailors and airmen on the flight deck, Bush effectively declared victory due to the defeat of Iraq's conventional forces. However, Saddam Hussein remained at large and significant pockets of resistance remained.
After President Bush's speech, coalition forces noticed a gradually increasing flurry of attacks on its troops in various regions, especially in the "Sunni Triangle".[121] The initial Iraqi insurgents were supplied by hundreds of weapons caches created prior to the invasion by the conventional Iraqi army and Republican Guard.
Initially, Iraqi resistance (known to the coalition as "Anti-Iraqi Forces") largely stemmed from fedayeen and Saddam/Baath Party loyalists, but soon religious radicals and Iraqis angered by the occupation contributed to the insurgency. The three provinces with the highest number of attacks were Baghdad, Al Anbar, and Salah Ad Din. Those three provinces account for 35% of the population, but are responsible for 73% of U.S. military deaths (as of December 5, 2006), and an even higher percentage of recent U.S. military deaths (about 80%.)[122] Insurgents use guerrilla tactics including; mortars, missiles, suicide attacks, snipers, improvised explosive devices (IEDs), car bombs, small arms fire (usually with assault rifles), and RPGs (rocket propelled grenades), as well as sabotage against the oil, water, and electrical infrastructure.
Post-invasion Iraq coalition efforts commenced after the fall of the Hussein regime. The coalition nations, together with the United Nations, began to work to establish a stable democratic state capable of defending itself, as well as overcoming internal divisions.[123][124]
Meanwhile, coalition military forces launched several operations around the Tigris River peninsula and in the Sunni Triangle. A series of similar operations were launched throughout the summer in the Sunni Triangle. Toward the end of 2003, the intensity and pace of insurgent attacks began to increase. A sharp surge in guerrilla attacks ushered in an insurgent effort that was termed the "Ramadan Offensive", as it coincided with the beginning of the Muslim holy month of Ramadan. To counter this offensive, coalition forces begin to use air power and artillery again for the first time since the end of the invasion by striking suspected ambush sites and mortar launching positions. Surveillance of major routes, patrols, and raids on suspected insurgents were stepped up. In addition, two villages, including Saddam’s birthplace of al-Auja and the small town of Abu Hishma were wrapped in barbed wire and carefully monitored.
However, the failure to restore basic services to pre-war levels, where over a decade of sanctions, bombing, corruption, and decaying infrastructure had left major cities barely functioning, contributed to local anger at the IPA government headed by an executive council.
Hunting down the Hussein regime
- See also: Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal and Trial of Saddam Hussein
In the summer of 2003, the multinational forces focused on hunting down the remaining leaders of the former regime. On July 22, a raid by the U.S. 101st Airborne Division and soldiers from Task Force 20 killed Saddam Hussein's sons (Uday and Qusay) along with one of his grandsons. In all, over 300 top leaders of the former regime were killed or captured, as well as numerous lesser functionaries and military personnel.
Most significantly, Saddam Hussein himself was captured on December 13, 2003 on a farm near Tikrit in Operation Red Dawn.[125] The operation was conducted by the United States Army's 4th Infantry Division and members of Task Force 121. Intelligence on Saddam’s whereabouts came from his family members and former bodyguards.[126]
With the capture of Saddam and a drop in the number of insurgent attacks, some concluded the multinational forces were prevailing in the fight against the insurgency. The provisional government began training the New Iraqi Security forces intended to defend the country, and the United States promised over $20 billion in reconstruction money in the form of credit against Iraq's future oil revenues. Oil revenue was also used for rebuilding schools and for work on the electrical and refining infrastructure.
Shortly after the capture of Saddam, elements left out of the Coalition Provisional Authority began to agitate for elections and the formation of an Iraqi Interim Government. Most prominent among these was the Shia cleric Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani. The Coalition Provisional Authority opposed allowing democratic elections at this time, preferring instead to eventually hand-over power to the Interim Iraqi Government.[127] Due to the internal fight for power in the new Iraqi government more insurgents stepped up their activities. The two most turbulent centers were the area around Fallujah and the poor Shia sections of cities from Baghdad (Sadr City) to Basra in the south.
2004: The insurgency expands
- See also: Military operations of the Iraq War for a list of all Coalition operations for this period, 2004 in Iraq, Iraqi coalition counter-insurgency operations, History of Iraqi insurgency, United States occupation of Fallujah, Iraq Spring Fighting of 2004
The start of 2004 was marked by a relative lull in violence. Insurgent forces reorganised during this time, studying the multinational forces' tactics and planning a renewed offensive. However, violence did increase during the Iraq Spring Fighting of 2004 with foreign fighters from around the Middle East as well as al-Qaeda in Iraq (an affiliated al-Qaeda group), led by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi helping to drive the insurgency.
As the insurgency grew there was a distinct change in targeting from the coalition forces towards the new Iraqi Security Forces, as hundreds of Iraqi civilians and police were killed over the next few months in a series of massive bombings. An organized Sunni insurgency, with deep roots and both nationalist and Islamist motivations, was becoming more powerful throughout Iraq. The Shia Mahdi Army also began launching attacks on coalition targets in an attempt to seize control from Iraqi security forces. The southern and central portions of Iraq were beginning to erupt in urban guerrilla combat as multinational forces attempted to keep control and prepared for a counteroffensive.
The most serious fighting of the war so far began on March 31, 2004, when Iraqi insurgents in Fallujah ambushed a Blackwater USA convoy led by four American private military contractors who were providing security for food caterers Eurest Support Services.[128] The four armed contractors, Scott Helvenston, Jerko Zovko, Wesley Batalona, and Michael Teague, were killed with grenades and small arms fire. Subsequently, their bodies were dragged from their vehicles, beaten, set ablaze, and their burned corpses hung over a bridge crossing the Euphrates.[129] Photos of the event were released to news agencies worldwide, causing a great deal of indignation and moral outrage in the United States, and prompting an unsuccessful "pacification" of the city: the First Battle of Fallujah in April 2004.
The offensive was resumed in November 2004 in the bloodiest battle of the war so far: the Second Battle of Fallujah, described by the U.S. military as "the heaviest urban combat (that they had been involved in) since the battle of Hue City in Vietnam."[130] Intelligence briefings given prior to battle reported that Coalition forces would encounter Chechnyan, Filipino, Saudi, Iranian, Italian, and Syrian combatants, as well as native Iraqis.[131] During the assault, U.S. forces used white phosphorus as an incendiary weapon against insurgent personnel, attracting controversy. The 46-day battle resulted in a victory for the coalition, with 95 Americans killed along with approximately 1,350 insurgents. Fallujah was totally devastated during the fighting, though civilian casualties were low, as they had mostly fled before the fight.[132]
Another major event of this year was the revelation of prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib which received international media attention in April 2004. First reports of the abuse, as well as graphic pictures showing American military personnel taunting and abusing Iraqi prisoners, came to public attention from a 60 Minutes II news report (April 28) and a Seymour M. Hersh article in the The New Yorker (posted online on April 30.)[133] Military correspondent Thomas Ricks claimed that these revelations dealt a blow to the moral justifications for the occupation in the eyes of some Iraqis and was a turning point in the war.[134]
2005: Elections and transitional government
- Further information: 2005 in Iraq and Military transition team
On January 31, Iraqis elected the Iraqi Transitional Government in order to draft a permanent constitution. Although some violence and widespread Sunni boycott marred the event, most of the eligible Kurd and Shia populace participated. On February 4, Paul Wolfowitz announced that 15,000 U.S. troops whose tours of duty had been extended in order to provide election security would be pulled out of Iraq by the next month.[135] February to April proved to be relatively peaceful months compared to the carnage of November and January, with insurgent attacks averaging 30 a day from the prior average of 70.
Hopes for a quick end to an insurgency and a withdrawal of U.S. troops were dashed in May, Iraq's bloodiest month since the invasion. Suicide bombers, believed to be mainly disheartened Iraqi Sunni Arabs, Syrians and Saudis, tore through Iraq. Their targets were often Shia gatherings or civilian concentrations mainly of Shias. As a result, over 700 Iraqi civilians died in that month, as well as 79 U.S. soldiers.
The summer of 2005 saw fighting around Baghdad and at Tall Afar in northwestern Iraq as US forces tried to seal off the Syrian border. This led to fighting in the autumn in the small towns of the Euphrates valley between the capital and the that border.[136]
A referendum was held in October 15 in which the new Iraqi constitution was ratified. An Iraqi national assembly was elected in December, with participation from the Sunnis as well as the Kurds and Shia.[136]
Insurgent attacks increased in 2005 with 34,131 recorded incidents, compared to a total 26,496 for the previous year.[137]
2006: Civil war and permanent Iraqi government
- Further information: 2006 in Iraq, Civil war in Iraq, Operation Together Forward, and Provincial Reconstruction Team
The beginning of 2006 was marked by government creation talks, growing sectarian violence, and continuous anti-coalition attacks. Sectarian violence expanded to a new level of intensity following the al-Askari Mosque bombing in the Iraqi city of Samarra, on February 22, 2006. The explosion at the mosque, one of the holiest sites in Shi'a Islam, is believed to have been caused by a bomb planted by Al-Qaeda in Iraq. Although no injuries occurred in the blast, the mosque was severely damaged and the bombing resulted in violence over the following days. Over 100 dead bodies with bullet holes were found on February 23, and at least 165 people are thought to have been killed. In the aftermath of this attack the US military calculated that the average homicide rate in Baghdad tripled from 11 to 33 deaths per day. In 2006 the UN described the environment in Iraq as a "civil war-like situation."[138]
The current government of Iraq took office on May 20, 2006 following approval by the members of the Iraqi National Assembly. This followed the general election in December 2005. The government succeeded the Iraqi Transitional Government which had continued in office in a caretaker capacity until the formation of the permanent government.
On November 23, the deadliest attack since the beginning of the Iraq war occurred. Suspected Sunni-Arab militants used suicide car bombs and mortar rounds on the capital's Shiite Sadr City slum to kill at least 215 people and wound 257. This attack was retaliated by Shia militias who fired mortar rounds at various Sunni neighborhoods and organizations.
Iraq Study Group report and Saddam’s execution
The Iraq Study Group Report was released on December 6, 2006. The bipartisan Iraq Study Group was led by former secretary of state James Baker and former Democratic congressman Lee Hamilton, and concludes that "the situation in Iraq is grave and deteriorating" and "U.S. forces seem to be caught in a mission that has no foreseeable end." The report's 79 recommendations include increasing diplomatic measures with Iran and Syria and intensifying efforts to train Iraqi troops. On December 18, a Pentagon report found that attacks on Americans and Iraqis were averaging about 960 a week, the highest since the reports had begun in 2005.[139]
Coalition forces formally transferred control of a province to the Iraqi government, the first since the war. Military prosecutors charged 8 Marines with the deaths of 24 Iraqi civilians in Haditha in November 2005, 10 of them women and children. Four officers were also charged with dereliction of duty in relation to the event.[140]
Saddam Hussein was hanged on December 30, 2006 after being found guilty of crimes against humanity by an Iraqi court, after a year-long trial.[141]
2007: U.S. troop surge
- Further information: 2007 in Iraq, Iraq War troop surge of 2007, and Strategic reset
In a January 10, 2007 televised address to the American public, Bush proposed 21,500 more troops for Iraq, a job programme for Iraqis, more reconstruction proposals, and $1.2 billion for these programmes.[142] Asked why he thought his plan would work this time, Bush said: "Because it has to."[143] On January 23, 2007 in the 2007 State of the Union Address, Bush announced "deploying reinforcements of more than 20,000 additional soldiers and Marines to Iraq." On February 10, 2007 David Petraeus was made commander of Multi-National Force - Iraq (MNF-I), the four-star post that oversees all U.S. forces in the country, replacing General George Casey. In his new position, Petraeus oversaw all coalition forces in Iraq and employed them in the new "Surge" strategy outlined by the Bush administration.[144][145] 2007 also saw a sharp increase in insurgent chlorine bombings.
However, maintaining higher troop levels in the face of higher casualties required two changes in the army. Tours of duty were increased and the exclusions of volunteers with a history of criminal acts were relaxed. A defense department sponsored report described increased length of tours leading to higher stress which increase manifestations of anger and disrespect for civilians.[146] Statistics released in April indicated that more and more soldiers have been deserting their duty, a sharp rise from the years before.[147]
On May 10, 2007, 144 Iraqi Parliamentary lawmakers signed onto a legislative petition calling on the United States to set a timetable for withdrawal.[148] On June 3, 2007, the Iraqi Parliament voted 85 to 59 to require the Iraqi government to consult with Parliament before requesting additional extensions of the UN Security Council Mandate for Coalition operations in Iraq.[149] Despite this, the mandate was renewed on December 18, 2007 without the approval of the Iraqi parliament.[150]
Pressures on U.S. troops were compounded by the continuing withdrawal of British forces from the Basra Governorate. In early 2007, British Prime Minister Tony Blair announced that following Operation Sinbad UK troops would begin to withdraw from Basra, handing security over to the Iraqis.[151] This announcement was confirmed in the autumn by Prime Minister Gordon Brown, Blair's successor, who again outlined a withdrawal plan for the remaining UK forces with a complete withdrawal date sometime in late 2008.[152] In July Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen also announced the withdrawal of 441 Danish troops from Iraq, leaving only a unit of nine soldiers manning four observational helicopters.[153]
Planned troop reduction
In a speech made to Congress on September 10, 2007, General David Petraeus "envisioned the withdrawal of roughly 30,000 U.S. troops by next summer, beginning with a Marine contingent [in September]."[154] On September 14, President Bush backed a limited withdrawal of troops from Iraq.[155] Bush said 5,700 personnel would be home by Christmas 2007, and expected thousands more to return by July 2008. The plan would take troop numbers back to their level before the surge at the beginning of 2007. Controversy arose when former Secretary of State Colin Powell announced before the surge took place that there would have to be a draw down of troops by mid-2007.[156]
Effects of the surge on security
By March 2008, violence in Iraq was reported curtailed by 40-80%, according to a Pentagon report.[157] Independent reports[158][159] raised questions about those assessments. An Iraqi military spokesman claimed that civilian deaths since the start of the troop surge plan were 265 in Baghdad, down from 1,440 in the four previous weeks. The New York Times counted more than 450 Iraqi civilians killed during the same 28-day period, based on initial daily reports from Interior Ministry and hospital officials.
Historically, the daily counts tallied by the NYT have underestimated the total death toll by 50% or more when compared to studies by the United Nations, which rely upon figures from the Iraqi Health Ministry and morgue figures.[160]
The rate of American combat deaths in Baghdad nearly doubled to 3.14/day in the first seven weeks of the "surge" in security activity, compared to previous period. Across the rest of Iraq it reduced slightly.[161][162]
On August 14, 2007 the deadliest single attack of the whole war occurred. Nearly 800 civilians were killed by a series of co-ordinated suicide bomb attacks on the northern Iraqi settlement of Qahtaniya. More than 100 homes and shops were destroyed in the blasts. US officials blamed al-Qaeda in Iraq. The targeted villagers belonged to the non-Muslim Yazidi ethnic minority. The attack may have represented the latest in a feud that erupted earlier that year when members of the Yazidi community stoned to death a teenage girl called Du’a Khalil Aswad accused of dating a Sunni Arab man and converting to Islam. The killing of the girl was recorded on camera-mobiles and the video was uploaded onto the internet[163][164][165][166]
On September 13, 2007 Abdul Sattar Abu Risha was killed in a bomb attack in the city of Ramadi.[167] He was an important US ally because he led the "Anbar Awakening", an alliance of Sunni Arab tribes that opposed al-Qaeda in Iraq. The latter organisation claimed responsibility for the attack.[168] A statement posted on the Internet by the shadowy Islamic State of Iraq called Abu Risha "one of the dogs of Bush" and described Thursday's killing as a "heroic operation that took over a month to prepare"[169].
There was a reported trend of decreasing US troop deaths after May 2007,[170] and violence against coalition troops had fallen to the "lowest levels since the first year of the American invasion".[171] These, and several other positive developments, were attributed to the surge by many analysts.[172] Data from The Pentagon and other US agencies such as the Government Accountability Office (GAO) found that daily attacks against civilians in Iraq remained “about the same” since February. The GAO also stated that there was no discernible trend in sectarian violence.[173] However, this report ran counter to reports to Congress, which showed a general downward trend in civilian deaths and ethno-sectarian violence since December 2006.[174] By late 2007, as the U.S. troop surge began to wind down, violence in Iraq had begun to decrease from its 2006 highs. However, political progress remained slow as the Shia-Kurd coalition government continued to stall on any significant progress on the host of issues facing Iraq.[175]
Reports from the ground dispute that the surge had a significant effect on security in Iraq. While life in Baghdad improved in 2007-08, the main reason this was that the battle for Baghdad in 2006-07 between the Shia and the Sunni populations was won by the Shia, who as of September 2008 controlled three-quarters of the capital. These demographic changes appeared permanent; Sunni families who try to get their houses back faced assassination. Thus the war against the American occupation by the Sunni community, who had been favoured under Saddam Hussein, had largely ended. The Sunni have been largely defeated, not so much by the US army as by the Shia-led Iraqi government and the Shia militias.[176] Entire neighborhoods in Baghdad were ethnically cleansed by Shia and Sunni militias and sectarian violence has broken out in every Iraqi city where there is a mixed population.[177][178][179] This assessment is supported by a study of satelite imagery tracking the amount of light emitted by Baghdad neighborhoods at night. The interpretation of the data was that violence had declined in Baghdad due to ethnic cleansing and that intercommunal violence had reached a climax as the surge was beginning. John Agnew, an authority on ethnic conflict and leader of the project stated "The surge really seems to have been a case of closing the stable door after the horse has bolted."[180][181]
On the other hand, investigative reporter Bob Woodward cites U.S. government sources according to which the US "surge" was not the primary reason for the drop in violence in 2007-2008. Instead, according to that view, the reduction of violence was due to newer covert techniques by US military and intelligence officials to find, target and kill insurgents.[182]
In the Shia region near Basra, British forces turned over security for the region to Iraqi Security Forces. Basra is the ninth province of Iraq's 18 provinces to be returned to local security forces' control since the beginning of the war.[183]
Political developments
More than half of the members of Iraq's parliament rejected the continuing occupation of their country for the first time. 144 of the 275 lawmakers signed onto a legislative petition that would require the Iraqi government to seek approval from Parliament before it requests an extension of the U.N. mandate for foreign forces to be in Iraq, which expires at the end of 2008. It also calls for a timetable for troop withdrawal and a freeze on the size of foreign forces. The U.N. Security Council mandate for U.S.-led forces in Iraq will terminate "if requested by the government of Iraq."[184] Under Iraqi law, the speaker must present a resolution called for by a majority of lawmakers.[185] 59% of those polled in the U.S. support a timetable for withdrawal.[186]
In mid-2007, the Coalition began a controversial program to recruit Iraqi Sunnis for the formation of "Guardian" militias. These Guardian militias are intended to support and secure various Sunni neighborhoods unable to provide internal security themselves.[187]
Tensions with Iran
- Further information: United States-Iran relations and Karbala provincial headquarters raid
In 2007, tensions increased greatly between Iran and Iraqi Kurdistan due to the latter's giving sanctuary to the militant anti-Iranian group Party for a Free Life in Kurdistan (PEJAK.) According to reports, Iran had been shelling PEJAK positions in Iraqi Kurdistan since August 16. These tensions further increased with an alleged border incursion on August 23 by Iranian troops who attacked several Kurdish villages killing an unknown number of civilians and militants.[188]
Coalition forces also began to target alleged Iranian Quds force operatives in Iraq, either arresting or killing suspected members. The Bush administration and coalition leaders began to publicly state that Iran was supplying weapons, particularly EFP devices, to Iraqi insurgents and militias although to date have failed to provide any proof for these allegations. Further sanctions on Iranian organizations were also announced by the Bush administration in the Autumn of 2007. On November 21, 2007 Lieutenant General James Dubik, who is in charge of training Iraqi security forces, praised Iran for its "contribution to the reduction of violence" in Iraq by upholding its pledge to stop the flow of weapons, explosives and training of extremists in Iraq.[189]
In April 2008, the United States accused an alleged Iranian backed insurgency of launching attacks on Iraqi civilians and US-led multinational forces and claimed that approximately 90 percent of foreign terrorists entered Iraq through Syria.
"Iran and Syria must stop the flow of weapons and foreign fighters into Iraq, and their malign interference in Iraq," U.S. Ambassador Zalmay Khalilzad said Monday in a report to the U.N. Security Council on behalf of the multinational force in Iraq. The Iranian and Syrian governments, however, have repeatedly denied trying to destabilize Iraq and insist there is no proof.[190]
On May 2, 2008, An Iraqi delegation in Iran confronted the Iranian security officials with evidence that Tehran was providing support for Shi'ite militias battling Iraqi government forces. According to Haidar al-Ibadi, a member of Iraqi Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki's Dawah party, list of names, training camps and cells linked to Iran were presented to the Iranian officials.[191] The Iranian officials denied the accusations and the Iraqi government has since announced that there is no hard evidence against Iran.[192]
Tensions with Turkey
- Further information: 2008 Turkish incursion into northern Iraq
Border incursions by PKK militants based in Iraqi Kurdistan have continued to harass Turkish forces, with casualties on both sides increasing tensions between Turkey, a NATO ally, and Iraqi Kurdistan.
In the fall of 2007, the Turkish military stated their right to cross the Iraqi Kurdistan border in "hot pursuit" of PKK militants and began shelling Kurdish villages in Iraq and attacking PKK bases in the Mount Cudi region with aircraft.[193][194] The Turkish parliament approved a resolution permitting the military to pursue the PKK in Iraqi Kurdistan.[195] In November, Turkish gunships attacked parts of northern Iraq in the first such attack by Turkish aircraft since the border tensions escalated.[196] Another series of attacks in mid-December hit PKK targets in the Qandil, Zap, Avashin and Hakurk regions. The latest series of attacks involved at least 50 aircraft and artillery and Kurdish officials reported one civilian killed and two wounded.[197]
Additionally, weapons that were originally given to Iraqi security forces by the American military are being recovered by authorities in Turkey after being used in violent crimes in that country.[198]
Private security firm controversy
On September 17, 2007, the Iraqi government announced that it was revoking the license of the American security firm Blackwater USA over the firm's involvement in the deaths of eight civilians, including a woman and an infant,[199] in a firefight that followed a car bomb explosion near a State Department motorcade. Additional investigations of alleged arms smuggling involving the firm was also under way. Blackwater is currently one of the most high-profile firms operating in Iraq, with around 1,000 employees as well as a fleet of helicopters in the country. Whether the group may be legally prosecuted is still a matter of debate.[200]
2008
- Further information: 2008 in Iraq
In early January, the Maliki government began consideration of a new law to politically rehabilitate former Baath Party members.[201]
The ongoing conflict between Turkey and PKK[202][203][204] intensified on February 21, when Turkey launched a ground attack into the Quandeel Mountains of Northern Iraq. In the nine day long operation, around 10,000 Turkish troops advanced up to 25 km into Northern Iraq. This was the first substantial ground incursion by Turkish forces since 1995.[205][206] Shortly after the incursion began, both the Iraqi cabinet and the Kurdistan regional government condemned Turkey's actions and called for the immediate withdrawal of Turkish troops from the region.[207] Turkish troops withdrew on February 29.[208]
The fifth anniversary of the beginning of the war on March 20 was marked by a speech by George Bush declaring that the surge strategy had been a success and that America was headed for victory. Critics of the war were less optimistic.[209]
Meanwhile the war went on, with American forces targeting al-Qaeda strongholds in Mosul.[210] In late March, the Green Zone in Baghdad came under repeated rocket attack, killing two U.S. government officials and injuring several others.[211] According to General David Petraeus, Iranian-trained insurgents were responsible for the attack.[212] On a day of increased violence and suicide bombings across Iraq, the death of four soldiers brought the total death toll of American forces, since the beginning of the war, to 4000.[213]
Spring offensives on Shia militias
- Further information: Iraq Spring Fighting of 2008 and Battle of Basra (2008)
At the end of March, the Iraqi Army, with Coalition air support, launched an offensive, dubbed "Charge of the Knights", in Basra to secure the area from militias. This was the first major operation where the Iraqi Army did not have direct combat support from conventional coalition ground troops. The offensive was opposed by the Mahdi Army, one of the militias, which controlled much of the region.[214][215] Fighting quickly spread to other parts of Iraq: including Sadr City, Al Kut, Al Hillah and others. During the fighting Iraqi forces met stiff resistance from militiamen in Basra to the point that the Iraqi military offensive slowed to a crawl, with the high attrition rates finally forcing the Sadrists to the negotiating table.
Following talks with Brig. Gen. Qassem Suleimani, commander of the Qods brigades of Iran's Revolutionary Guard Corps, and the intercession of the Iranian government, on March 31, 2008, al-Sadr ordered his followers to ceasefire.[216] The militiamen did keep their weapons and blended back into the population.
By May 12, 2008, Basra "residents overwhelmingly reported a substantial improvement in their everyday lives" according to The New York Times. "Government forces have now taken over Islamic militants’ headquarters and halted the death squads and 'vice enforcers’ who attacked women, Christians, musicians, alcohol sellers and anyone suspected of collaborating with Westerners", according to the report; however, when asked how long it would take for lawlessness to resume if the Iraqi army left, one resident replied, "one day".[215]
In late April roadside bombings continued to rise from a low in January of 114 to over 250, surpassing the May 2007 high.
In early May, the Iraqi government called on the residents of Sadr City to flee after more than 40 days of fighting, which left between 500-1,000 people dead. Due to the nearly constant violence, there are ongoing shortages of food, water, and other supplies.[217]
Congressional testimony
Speaking before the U.S. Congress on April 8, 2008, General David Petraeus urged delaying troop withdrawals, saying, "I’ve repeatedly noted that we haven’t turned any corners, we haven’t seen any lights at the end of the tunnel," referencing the comments of President Bush and former Vietnam-era General William Westmoreland.[218] When asked by Senator Evan Bayh if reasonable people could disagree on the way forward, Petraeus responded, "I don’t know if I would go that far."[219] When asked twice again about that point, Petraeus said, "We fight for the right of people to have other opinions."[220]
Presidential candidate and Senator John McCain said that it was reckless and irresponsible to call for troop withdrawals. Senator Hillary Clinton, disagreed, saying it may be more irresponsible to leave troops in. Senator Barack Obama remarked, "if the definition of success is so high: no traces of Al Qaida and no possibility of reconstitution, a highly effective Iraqi government, a democratic multi-ethnic, multi-sectarian functioning democracy with no Iranian influence, at least not of the kind that we don't like, then that portends the possibility of us staying for 20 or 30 years. If, on the other hand, our criteria is a messy, sloppy status quo but there's not huge outbreaks of violence, there's still corruption, but the country is struggling along, but it's not a threat to its neighbors and it's not an Al Qaida base, that seems to me an achievable goal within a measurable timeframe."[221]
Upon questioning by Senate committee chair Joe Biden, Ambassador Crocker admitted that Al-Qaeda in Iraq was less important than the separate Al-Qaeda organization led by Osama bin Laden along the Afghan-Pakistani border.[222] Lawmakers from both parties complained that U.S. taxpayers are carrying Iraq's burden as it earns billions of dollars in oil revenues. Democrats plan to push legislation this spring that would force the Iraqi government to spend its own surplus to rebuild.[223]
When asked by Republican Senator John Warner whether the Iraq War is making the U.S. safer, Petraeus stated that it would ultimately be up to history.[224] Senator George Voinovich, a broke with his Republican party line saying the country is, "kind of bankrupted ... in a recession."[225] Republican Senator Chuck Hagel asked about Ambassador Ryan Crocker's "diplomatic surge," and its apparent lack of results in the region.[226] Republican Senator Bob Corker asked for an articulated exit strategy.[227]
Status of forces agreement
Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki told U.S. President George W. Bush on April 9, 2008 that Iraqi security forces are capable of their duties and U.S. troops should be pulled out as the situation allows.[228] In May 2007, Bush said, "We are there at the invitation of the Iraqi government. This is a sovereign nation. Twelve million people went to the polls to approve a constitution. It's their government's choice. If they were to say, leave, we would leave."[229]
Bush said on April 11, 2008, that he is not ready to order further troop withdrawals from Iraq. The last of the surge troops are expected to return home in July. Any further withdrawals will be suspended for at least 45 days while General David Petraeus decides if they are possible.[230]
Negotiations between the Maliki government and the U.S. on the Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) for U.S. forces in Iraq began in 2008. In an interview January 24, 2008, US Defense Secretary Robert Gates indicated that work on a SOFA had barely been started. [231] The current U.N. authorization allowing coalition troops in Iraq expires at the end of 2008.
On November 27, 2008, the Iraqi Parliament ratified a Status of Forces Agreement with the United States, establishing that Coalition combat forces will withdraw from Iraqi cities by June 30, 2009, and will be completely out of Iraq by December 31, 2011 pending any negotiations. The pact forbids holding prisoners without criminal charges, and limits searches of homes and buildings.[232] The pact subjects Coalition forces to Iraqi law if they commit major and premeditated crimes while off-duty and off-base.[233][232] Some groups of Iraqis protested the passing of the accord,[67][68] and a representative of Grand Ayatollah Ali Husseini al-Sistani expressed concern the ratified version of the pact would grant the occupiers immunity from prosecution in Iraqi courts among other things.[69] A referendum will be held in mid-2009, which may terminate the agreement and require Coalition forces to completely leave by the middle of 2010.[70] Parliament also passed another U.S.-Iraqi bilateral pact called the Strategic Framework Agreement,[71] aimed at ensuring constitutional ethnic, religious, and gender rights. The pact also aims to ensure cooperation in the areas of threat deterrence, education, energy development, environmental hygiene, health care, information technology, communications and law enforcement.[72]
To protest an agreement they saw as prolonging a "humiliating" occupation,[234] tens of thousands of Iraqis burned an effigy of George W. Bush in a central Baghdad square where U.S. troops five years previously staged a tearing down of a statue of Saddam Hussein.[235] The Iraqi parliament was the scene of many protests before[236] and during the vote.[237]
After the deal passed, some 9,000 Iraqis gathered to protest in Baghdad’s eastern suburb of Sadr City. Protesters burned a U.S. flag and held banners reading: “No, no to the agreement”.[238] "We condemn the agreement and we reject it, just as we condemn all injustice," Sheikh Hassan al-Husseini told worshippers right after the vote at the weekly Friday prayers in Baghdad. [239] Iraqi theologian and political leader Muqtada al-Sadr called for three days of peaceful protests and mourning after the passing of the agreement.[240] A representative of Grand Ayatollah Ali Husseini al-Sistani's expressed concern with the ratified version of the pact and noted that the government of Iraq has no authority to control the transfer of occupier forces into and out of Iraq, no control of shipments, and that the pact grants the occupiers immunity from prosecution in Iraqi courts. He said that Iraqi rule in the country is not complete while the occupiers are present, but that ultimately the Iraqi people would judge the pact in a referendum.[241] Some other Iraqis expressed skeptical optimism that the U.S. would completely end its occupation in three years.[242]
Iraqi security forces rearm
Iraq became one of the top current purchasers of U.S. military equipment with their army trading its AK-47 assault rifles for the more accurate U.S. M-16 and M-4 rifles, among other equipment.[243] This year alone, Iraq accounts for more than $12.5 billion of the $34 billion US weapon sales to foreign countries (not including the potential F-16 fighter planes.)[244]
Iraq sought 36 F-16’s, the most sophisticated weapons system Iraq has attempted to purchase. The Pentagon notified Congress that it had approved the sale of 24 American attack helicopters to Iraq, valued at as much as $2.4 billion. Including the helicopters, Iraq announced plans to purchase at least $10 billion in U.S. tanks and armored vehicles, transport planes and other battlefield equipment and services. Over the summer, the Defense Department announced that the Iraqi government wanted to order more than 400 armored vehicles and other equipment worth up to $3 billion, and six C-130J transport planes, worth up to $1.5 billion.[245]
Coalition troop deployment
- See also: Dancon/Irak, Deployment of Japanese troops to Iraq, Polish involvement in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Operation Telic order of battle, and Plus Ultra Brigade
The Multinational Force in Iraq is a military command led by the United States fighting the Iraq War against Iraqi insurgents. "Multi-National Force — Iraq" replaced the previous force, Combined Joint Task Force 7, on May 15, 2004. The media in the U.S. has used the term U.S.-led coalition to describe this force, as around 93% of the troops are from the United States.[246] Due to the expiration of the UN authorization on foreign troops in Iraq, the end of 2008 will mark the end of the Multinational Force in Iraq force with all of the remaining coalition partners withdrawing their armed forces.[247]
United Nations
The United Nations deployed a small contingent to Iraq to protect UN staff and guard their compounds. The U.N. mandate for this force expires in August 2009.
United Nations Assistance Mission in Iraq (UNAMI)
Fiji: 219 blue-helmets
Denmark: 2 military observers
New Zealand - 1 military observer
United Kingdom - 1 military observer
Austria - 1 military observer
NATO
Several NATO member-states have deployed instructors to Iraq to train Iraqi security and military forces in conjuction with the MNF: NATO Training Mission - Iraq (NTM-I).
Armed Iraqi groups
- Further information: History of Iraqi insurgency, Sectarian violence in Iraq, and Iraqi coalition counter-insurgency operations
The Iraqi insurgency is the armed resistance, by diverse groups, including private militias, within Iraq opposed to the US occupation and the U.S.-supported Iraqi government. The fighting has clear sectarian overtones and significant international implications (see Civil war in Iraq.) This campaign has been called the Iraqi resistance by its supporters and the anti-Iraqi forces(AIF)[248] by Coalition forces.
Insurgents
By fall 2003 these insurgent groups began using typical guerrilla tactics: ambushes, bombings, kidnappings, and the use of IEDs. Other actions include mortars and suicide attacks, explosively formed penetrators, small arms fire, anti-aircraft missiles (SA-7, SA-14, SA-16) and RPGs. The insurgents also conduct sabotage against the oil, water, and electrical infrastructure of Iraq. Multi-national Force-Iraq statistics (see detailed BBC graphic) show that the insurgents primarily targeted coalition forces, Iraqi security forces and infrastructure, and lastly civilians and government officials. These irregular forces favored attacking unarmored or lightly armored Humvee vehicles, the U.S. military's primary transport vehicle, primarily through the use of roadside IED.[249][250] Insurgent groups such as the al-Abud Network have also attempted to constitute their own chemical weapons programs, trying to weaponise traditional mortar rounds with ricin and mustard toxin.[251]
There is evidence that some guerrilla groups are organised, perhaps by the fedayeen and other Saddam Hussein or Baath loyalists, religious radicals, Iraqis angered by the occupation, and foreign fighters.[252] On February 23, 2005
Militias
Two of the most powerful current militias are the Mahdi Army and the Badr Organization, with both militias having substantial political support in the current Iraqi government. Initially, both organisations were involved in the Iraqi insurgency, most clearly seen with the Mahdi Army at the Battle of Najaf. However in recent months, there has been a split between the two groups.
This violent break between Muqtada al-Sadr's Mahdi Army and the rival Badr Organization of Abdul Aziz al-Hakim, was seen in the fighting in the town of Amarah on October 20, 2006, would severely complicate the efforts of Iraqi and American officials to quell the soaring violence.[253]
More recently in late 2005 and 2006, due to increasing sectarian violence based on either tribal/ethnic distinctions or simply due to increased criminal violence, various militias have formed, with whole neighborhoods and cities sometimes being protected or attacked by ethnic or neighborhood militias. One such group, known as the Anbar Awakening, was formed in September 2006 to fight against Al Qaeda and other radical islamist groups in particularly violent Anbar province. Led by Sheik and Abdul Sattar Buzaigh al-Rishawi, who heads the Sunni Anbar Salvation Council, the Anbar Awakening has more than 60,000 troops and is seen by key U.S. officials such as Condoleezza Rice as a potential ally to U.S. occupation forces.[254]
Al-Qaeda in Iraq
Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) is a term to describe a group which is playing an active role in the Iraqi insurgency. The group was led by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi until his death in 2006; it is now believed to be led by Abu Hamza al-Muhajir[255] (aka Abu Ayyub al-Masri.[256])
Casualty estimates
- See also: Suicide bombings in Iraq since 2003, Foreign hostages in Iraq, List of Coalition forces killed in Iraq in 2006, and List of insurgents killed in Iraq
For coalition death totals see the infobox at the top right. See also Casualties of the Iraq War, which has casualty numbers for coalition nations, contractors, non-Iraqi civilians, journalists, media helpers, aid workers, wounded, etc.. The main article also gives explanations for the wide variation in estimates and counts, and shows many ways in which undercounting occurs. Casualty figures, especially Iraqi ones, are highly disputed. This section gives a brief overview.
U.S. General Tommy Franks reportedly estimated soon after the invasion that there had been 30,000 Iraqi casualties as of April 9, 2003.[257] After this initial estimate he made no further public estimates.
In December 2005 President Bush said there were 30,000 Iraqi dead. White House spokesman Scott McClellan later said it was "not an official government estimate", and was based on media reports.[258]
There have been several attempts by the media, coalition governments and others to estimate the Iraqi casualties:
- Associated Press count (August 9, 2008): 4,136 members of the U.S. military.[259][260] The AP count is one fewer than the Defense Department's tally, last updated Friday at 10 a.m. EDT.
The British military has reported 176 deaths; Italy, 33; Ukraine, 18; Poland, 21; Bulgaria, 13; Spain, 11; Denmark, seven; El Salvador, five; Slovakia, four; Latvia and Georgia, three each; Estonia, Netherlands, Thailand, Romania, two each; and Australia, Hungary, Kazakhstan, South Korea, one death each.
- Iraqi Health Ministry casualty survey: in January 2008 the Iraqi health minister, Dr Salih Mahdi Motlab Al-Hasanawi, reported the results of the "Iraq Family Health Survey" of 9,345 households across Iraq which was carried out in 2006 and 2007. It estimated 151,000 violence-related Iraqi deaths (95% uncertainty range, 104,000 to 223,000) from March 2003 through June 2006. Employees of the Iraqi Health Ministry carried out the survey for the World Health Organization.[30] The results were published in the New England Journal of Medicine.[29][31][32]
- Iraq's Health Minister Ali al-Shemari said in November 2006 that since the March 2003 invasion between 100,000-150,000 Iraqis have been killed.[261] Al-Shemari said on Thursday, Nov. 9, that he based his figure on an estimate of 100 bodies per day brought to morgues and hospitals.[262]
- The United Nations found that 34,452 violent civilian deaths were reported by morgues, hospitals, and municipal authorities across Iraq in 2006.[263][264]
- The Iraqi ministries of Health, Defence and Interior said that 14,298 civilians, 1,348 police, and 627 soldiers were killed in 2006.[265] The Iraqi government does not count deaths classed as "criminal", nor those from kidnappings, nor wounded persons who die later as the result of attacks. However "a figure of 3,700 civilian deaths in October 2006, the latest tally given by the UN based on data from the Health Ministry and the Baghdad morgue, was branded exaggerated by the Iraqi Government."[266]
- The Iraq Body Count project (IBC) has documented 86,663 - 94,560 violent, non-combatant civilian deaths since the beginning of the war as of August 24, 2008.[267] However, the IBC has been criticized for counting only a small percentage of the number of actual deaths because they only include deaths reported by specific media agencies.[268][269] IBC Director John Sloboda admits, "We've always said our work is an undercount, you can't possibly expect that a media-based analysis will get all the deaths."[270]
- The 2006 Lancet survey of casualties of the Iraq War estimated 654,965 Iraqi deaths (range of 392,979-942,636) from March 2003 to the end of June 2006.[27][28] That total number of deaths (all Iraqis) includes all excess deaths due to increased lawlessness, degraded infrastructure, poorer healthcare, etc, and includes civilians, military deaths and insurgent deaths. 601,027 were violent deaths (31% attributed to Coalition, 24% to others, 46% unknown.) A copy of a death certificate was available for a high proportion of the reported deaths (92 per cent of surveyed households produced one.)[27][271] The causes of violent deaths were gunshot (56%), car bomb (13%), other explosion/ordnance (14%), air strike (13%), accident (2%), unknown (2%.) The survey results have been criticized as "ridiculous" and "extreme and improbable" by various critics such as the Iraqi government and Iraq Body Count project.[272][54][273] However, in a letter to The Age, published Oct. 21, 2006, 27 epidemiologists and health professionals defended the methods of the study, writing that the study's "methodology is sound and its conclusions should be taken seriously."
- An Opinion Research Business (ORB) survey conducted August 12-19, 2007 estimated 1,220,580 violent deaths due to the Iraq War (range of 733,158 to 1,446,063.) Out of a national sample of 1,499 Iraqi adults, 22% had one or more members of their household killed due to the Iraq War (poll accuracy +/-2.4%.)[274] ORB reported that 48% died from a gunshot wound, 20% from car bombs, 9% from aerial bombardment, 6% as a result of an accident and 6% from another blast/ordnance. It is the highest estimate given so far of civilian deaths in Iraq and is consistent with the Lancet study.[275][54] On January 28, 2008, ORB published an update based on additional work carried out in rural areas of Iraq. Some 600 additional interviews were undertaken and as a result of this the death estimate was revised to 1,033,000 with a given range of 946,000 to 1,120,000.[26]
Criticisms and costs
- Further information: Criticism of the Iraq War, Opposition to the Iraq War, Legitimacy of the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Legality of the Iraq War, Views on the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Protests against the Iraq War, American popular opinion on invasion of Iraq, Governments' positions pre-2003 invasion of Iraq, and 2003 invasion of Iraq media coverage
- See also: Iraq War misappropriations, Habbush letter, and The Way of the World: A Story of Truth and Hope in an Age of Extremism
The U.S. rationale for the Iraq War has faced heavy criticism from an array of popular and official sources both inside and outside the United States, with many American citizens finding many parallels with the Vietnam War. According to the Center for Public Integrity, President Bush's administration made a total of 935 false statements between 2001 and 2003 about Iraq's alleged threat to the United States.[277] Both proponents and opponents of the invasion have also criticized the prosecution of the war effort along a number of other lines. Most significantly, critics have assailed the U.S. and its allies for not devoting enough troops to the mission, not adequately planning for post-invasion Iraq, and for permitting and perpetrating widespread human rights abuses. As the war has progressed, critics have also railed against the high human and financial costs.
The court-martial of Ehren Watada, the first U.S. officer to refuse to serve in Iraq, ended in a mistrial because the Judge Advocate General's Corps would not consider the question of whether orders could be illegal. A federal district court judge ruled that Watada cannot face double jeopardy on three of his five charges, but abstained from ruling on whether the two remaining charges of conduct unbecoming an officer may still go forward.[278]
Another criticism of the initial intelligence leading up to the Iraq war comes from a former CIA officer who described the Office of Special Plans as a group of ideologues who were dangerous for U.S. national security and a threat to world peace, and that the group lied and manipulated intelligence to further its agenda of removing Saddam Hussein.[279] Subsequently, in 2008, the nonpartisan Center for Public Integrity has enumerated a total of 935 false statements made by George Bush and six other top members of his administration in what it termed a "carefully launched campaign of misinformation" during the two year period following 9-11, in order to rally support for the invasion of Iraq.[280][281]
The financial cost of the war has been more than £4.5 billion ($9 billion) to the UK,[287] and over $845 billion to the U.S., with the total cost to the U.S. economy estimated at $3 trillion.[288]
Criticisms include:
- Legality of the invasion[289][290]
- Inadequate troop levels (a RAND study stated that 500,000 troops would be required for success)[291]
- Insufficient post-invasion plans
- Human casualties
- Financial costs with approximately $474 billion spent as of 12/07 the CBO has estimated the total cost of the war in Iraq to U.S. taxpayers will be around $1.9 trillion.[292]
- Adverse effect on global war on terror[293][294]
- Negative impact on Israel[295]
- Negative impact on Saudi Arabia[296]
- Endangerment and ethnic cleansing of religious and ethnic minorities[297][298][299][300][301]
- Damage to America's traditional alliances and influence
- Disruption of Iraqi oil production and related energy security concerns (the price of oil has quadrupled since 2002)[302][303]
Humanitarian crises
Iraqi health care deterioration
- See also: Health in Iraq
In a report entitled "Civilians without Protection: The Ever-Worsening Humanitarian Crisis in Iraq", produced well after the stepped-up American-led military operations in Baghdad began February 14, 2007, the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement said that millions of Iraqis are in a disastrous situation that is getting worse, with medical professionals fleeing the country after their colleagues were killed or abducted. Mothers are appealing for someone to pick up the bodies on the street so their children will be spared the horror of looking at them on their way to school. Red Cross Director of Operations Pierre Kraehenbuehl said that hospitals and other key services are desperately short of staff, with more than half the doctors said to have already left the country.[304]
According to an anonymous Iraqi government official, 1,944 civilians and at least 174 soldiers and policemen were killed in May, 2007, a 29% increase in civilian deaths over April. The Iraqi government's estimate of the number of civilian deaths has always been much lower than reports from independent researchers, such as the Lancet surveys of Iraq War casualties. Mortar attacks in the capital are becoming deadlier.[305]
Between June 18 and July 18, 2007, up to 592 unidentified bodies were found dumped in Baghdad. Most of the approximately 20 per day found by the police have been bound, blindfolded and shot execution style. The police attribute these deaths to Sunni and Shi’ite death squads. According to Baghdad medical sources, many have also shown signs of torture and mutilation. Despite official Iraqi and U.S. statements to the contrary, the reports indicated that the number of unidentified bodies in the capital rose to pre-surge levels in July. Media reports have indicated that the U.S. military has usually focused on areas where they have been attacked rather than districts witnessing such sectarian reprisal killings.[306]
Iraq's health has deteriorated to a level not seen since the 1950s, said Joseph Chamie, former director of the U.N. Population Division and an Iraq specialist. "They were at the forefront", he said, referring to health care just before the 1991 Persian Gulf War. "Now they're looking more and more like a country in sub-Saharan Africa."[307] Malnutrition rates have risen from 19% before the US-led invasion to a national average of 28% four years later.[308] Some 60-70% of Iraqi children are suffering from psychological problems.[309] 68% of Iraqis have no access to safe drinking water. A cholera outbreak in northern Iraq is thought to be the result of poor water quality.[310] As many as half of Iraqi doctors have left the country since 2003.[311]
In December 2007 the Iraqi government announced plans to cut food rations and subsidies by almost 50 per cent as part of its overall 2008 budget because of insufficient funds and rising inflation. Apart from the cut in subsidies, Baghdad also wants to reduce the number of people dependent on the rationing system by five million. Rationing was first introduced in 1991 after the UN Security Council imposed sanctions on Iraq but the country has seen an alarming rise in poverty since the 2003 invasion. Nearly 10 million Iraqi's living in poverty now depend heavily on the rationing system.
Orphans
On December 15, 2007 a conference dedicated to orphans in Iraq was held in Baghdad. Iraq's anti-corruption board reported that official government statistics revealed that five million (or 35%) of Iraqi children were orphans. The term 'orphan' applies in Arabic to a child whose father or both his or her parents have died.[312] Wijdan Salem Mikhail, the Iraqi Minister of Human Rights, stated the phenomenon "is one of the most passive things that grew immensely during the past few years due to destructive wars and unbridled violence in the country." The Iraqi parliament's women and family committee have proposed a draft law to set up a fund for the orphans.[313]
On January 21, 2008 the Iraqi Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs released a report estimating that there were 4.5 millions Iraqi orphans, with 500,000 living on the streets without any home or family care. The report further said there were only 459 orphans in governmental houses of orphans while there were 800 Iraqi orphans in American Iraqi prisons. Amal Kashefal-Ghetaa, the president of the Islamic Foundation of Woman and Child, explained that "a massive change took place in the lives of children that forced many of them to leave their schools and friends to go to work; a matter that affects them mentally.” Sociologist Atheer Kareem said the negative situation that children in Iraq are experiencing would increase their suffering unless the government in Iraq responds by issuing legislation.[314]
Iraqi refugees
There are more than 4.7 million refugees of Iraq, more than 16% of the population. Two million fled Iraq while approximately 2.7 million are internally displaced people.[315] The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees estimated on April 29, 2008 that 2 million Iraqis had fled to neighboring countries and 2.7 million were displaced internally, with nearly 100,000 Iraqis fleeing to Syria and Jordan each month.[316][317][318]
Roughly 40% of Iraq's middle class is believed to have fled, the U.N. said. Most are fleeing systematic persecution and have no desire to return.[319] All kinds of people, from university professors to bakers, have been targeted by militias, insurgents and criminals. An estimated 331 school teachers were slain in the first four months of 2006, according to Human Rights Watch, and at least 2,000 Iraqi doctors have been murdered and 250 kidnapped since the 2003 U.S. invasion.[320] Iraqi refugees in Syria and Jordan live in impoverished communities with little international attention to their plight and little legal protection.[321][322] Many of the Iraqi women fleeing the war in Iraq are turning to prostitution.[323]
Although Christians represent less than 5% of the total Iraqi population, they make up 40% of the refugees now living in nearby countries, according to U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees.[324][325] UNHCR estimates that Christians comprise 24% of Iraqis currently seeking asylum in Syria.[326][327] The census in 1987 counted 1.4 million Christians, however since the 2003 invasion radicalized Iraqi culture, the total number of Christians dropped to about 500,000, half of which live in Baghdad.[328][329][330][331]
Ethnic cleansing
Between October 2003 and March 2005 alone, 36% of the 700,000 Iraqis who fled to Syria were Assyrians and other Iraqi Christians, judging from a sample of those registering for asylum on political or religious grounds.[332] Furthermore, the small Mandaean and Yazidi communities are at the risk of elimination due to ethnic cleansing by Islamic militants.[333][334]
Entire neighborhoods in Baghdad were ethnically cleansed by Shia and Sunni militias and sectarian violence has broken out in every Iraqi city where there is a mixed population.[177] Sunnis have fled Basra, while Shias were driven out of cities and towns north of Baghdad such as Samarra or Baquba.[299][179] Satellite shows ethnic cleansing in Iraq was key factor in "surge" success.[181] Some areas are being evacuated by every member of a particular secular group due to lack of security, moving into new areas because of fear of reprisal killings.[335][336]
For decades, Saddam Hussein 'Arabised' northern Iraq.[337] Now his ethnic cleansing is being reversed.[338] Thousands of ethnic Kurds pushed into lands formerly held by Iraqi Arabs, forcing at least 100,000 of them to flee to refugee camps.[339] Sunni Arabs have driven out at least 70,000 Kurds from the Mosul’s western half.[340] Nowadays, eastern Mosul is Kurdish and western Mosul is Sunni Arab.[341] The policies of Kurdification by KDP and PUK after 2003 (with non-Kurds being pressured to move, in particular Assyrian Christians and Iraqi Turkmen) have prompted serious inter-ethnic problems.[342]
Human rights abuses
Throughout the entire Iraq war there have been human rights abuses on all sides of the conflict.
Iraqi government
- The use of torture by Iraqi security forces.[343]
- Iraqi police from the Interior Ministry accused of forming Death Squads and committing numerous massacres and tortures of Sunni Arabs[344] and the police collusion with militias in Iraq have compounded the problems.
Coalition forces and private contractors
- Alleged Gang-rape. Jamie Leigh Jones
- Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse
- Haditha killings of 24 civilians (ongoing with some charges dropped)
- White phosphorus use in Iraq
- Gang-rape and murder of a 14-year-old girl and the murder of her family, in Mahmoudiyah [345]
- The torture and killing of prisoner of war, Iraqi Air Force commander, Abed Hamed Mowhoush
- Bombing and shooting of 42 civilians in Mukaradeeb[346] (under investigation)
- Controversy over whether disproportionate force was used, during the assaults by Coalition and (mostly Shia and Kurdish) Iraqi government forces on the Sunni insurgent stronghold of Fallujah in 2004.
- Planting weapons on noncombatant, unarmed Iraqis by three US Marines after killing them.[347][348] According to a report by The Nation, other similar acts have been witnessed by US soldiers.[349] Members of Iraq Veterans Against the War tell similar stories.[350]
Insurgent and terrorist groups
- Further information: Tactics of the Iraqi insurgency
- Killing over 12,000 Iraqis from January 2005 - June 2006, according to Iraqi Interior Minister Bayan Jabr, giving the first official count for the victims of bombings, ambushes and other deadly attacks.[351] The insurgents have also conducted numerous suicide attacks on the Iraqi civilian population, mostly targeting the majority Shia community.[352][353] An October 2005 report from Human Rights Watch examines the range of civilian attacks and their purported justification.[354]
- Attacks against civilians including children through bombing of market places and other locations reachable by car bombs.
- Attacks on diplomats and diplomatic facilities including; the bombing of the U.N. headquarters in Baghdad in August 2003 killing the top U.N. representative in Iraq and 21 other UN staff members;[355] beheading several diplomats: two Algerian diplomatic envoys Ali Belaroussi and Azzedine Belkadi,[356] Egyptian diplomatic envoy al-Sherif,[357] and four Russian diplomats.[358]
- The February 2006 bombing of the al-Askari Mosque, destroying one of the holiest Shiite shrines, killing over 165 worshipers and igniting sectarian strife and reprisal killings.[359]
- The publicised killing of several contractors; Eugene Armstrong, Jack Hensley, Kenneth Bigley, Ivaylo Kepov and Georgi Lazov (Bulgarian truck drivers.)[360] Other non-military personnel murdered include: translator Kim Sun-il, Shosei Koda, Fabrizio Quattrocchi (Italian), charity worker Margaret Hassan, reconstruction engineer Nick Berg, photographer Salvatore Santoro (Italian)[361] and supply worker Seif Adnan Kanaan (Iraqi.) Four private armed contractors, Scott Helvenston, Jerko Zovko, Wesley Batalona and Michael Teague, were killed with grenades and small arms fire, their bodies dragged from their vehicles, beaten and set ablaze. Their burned corpses were then dragged through the streets before being hung over a bridge crossing the Euphrates.[362]
- Attacks against coalition convoys and bases.
- Torture or killing of members of the New Iraqi Army,[363] and assassination of civilians associated with the Coalition Provisional Authority, such as Fern Holland, or the Iraqi Governing Council, such as Aqila al-Hashimi and Ezzedine Salim, or other foreign civilians, such as those from Kenya.[364]
Public opinion on the war
International opinion
According to a January 2007 BBC World Service poll of more than 26,000 people in 25 countries, 73% of the global population disapproves of the U.S. handling of the Iraq War.[365] A September 2007 poll conducted by the BBC found that 2/3rds of the world's population believed the U.S. should withdraw its forces from Iraq.[366] According to an April 2004 USA Today/CNN/Gallup Poll, only a third of the Iraqi people believed that "the American-led occupation of their country is doing more good than harm, and a solid majority support an immediate military pullout even though they fear that could put them in greater danger."[367] Majorities in the UK and Canada believe the war in Iraq is "unjustified" and - in the UK - are critical of their government's support of U.S. policies in Iraq (Canada opposed the U.S.-led invasion force and has one observer blue helmet in Iraq.)[368] According to polls conducted by The Arab American Institute, four years after the invasion of Iraq, 83% of Egyptians had a negative view of the U.S.'s role in Iraq; 68% of Saudi Arabians had a negative view; 96% of the Jordanian population had a negative view; 70% of the UAE and 76% of the Lebanese population also described their view as negative.[369] The Pew Global Attitudes Project reports that in 2006 majorities in the Netherlands, Germany, Jordan, France, Lebanon, China, Spain, Indonesia, Turkey, Pakistan, and Morocco believed the world was safer before the Iraq War and the toppling of Saddam Hussein. However, pluralities in the U.S. and India believe the world is safer without Saddam Hussein.[370]
Iraqi opinion
The U.S. has long maintained its involvement there is with the support of the Iraqi people, but in 2005 when asked directly, 82–87% of the Iraqi populace was opposed to U.S. occupation and wanted U.S. troops to leave. 47% of Iraqis supported attacking U.S. troops.[371] Another poll conducted on September 27, 2006, found that seven out of ten Iraqis want U.S.-led forces to withdraw from Iraq within one year. Overall, 78% of those polled said they believed that the presence of U.S. forces is "provoking more conflict than it's preventing." 53% of those polled believed the Iraqi government would be strengthened if U.S. forces left Iraq (versus 23% who believed it would be weakened), and 71% wanted this to happen in 1 year or less. All of these positions were more prevalent amongst Sunni and Shia respondents than among Kurds. 61% of respondents said that they approve of attacks on U.S.-led forces, while 94% still had an unfavorable opinion of al-Qaeda.[372]
A March 7, 2007 survey of more than 2,000 Iraqis found that 78% of the population opposed the presence of Coalition forces in Iraq, that 69% believed the presence of U.S. forces is making things worse, and that 51% of the population considered attacks on coalition forces acceptable, up from 17% in 2004 and 35% in 2006. In addition:[373]
- 64% described their family's economic situation as being somewhat or very bad, up from 30% in 2005.
- 88% described the availability of electricity as being either somewhat or very bad, up from 65% in 2004.
- 69% described the availability of clean water as somewhat or very bad, up from 48% in 2004.
- 88% described the availability of fuel for cooking and driving as being somewhat or very bad.
- 58% described reconstruction efforts in the area in which they live as either somewhat or very ineffective, and 9% described them as being totally nonexistent.
A 2007 survey for the first time asked ordinary Iraqis their view on the highly contentious draft oil law. According to the poll, 76 percent of Iraqis feel inadequately informed about the contents of the proposed law. Nonetheless, 63 percent responded that they would prefer Iraqi state-owned companies – and not foreign corporations – to develop Iraq’s extensive oil fields.[374]
Relation to the Global War on Terror
President Bush has consistently referred to the Iraq war as "the central front in the War on Terror", and has argued that if the U.S. pulls out of Iraq, "terrorists will follow us here."[375][376][377] While other proponents of the war have regularly echoed this assertion, as the conflict has dragged on, members of the U.S. Congress, the American public, and even U.S. troops have begun to question the connection between Iraq and the fight against terrorism. In particular, a consensus has developed among intelligence experts that the Iraq war has increased terrorism. Counterterrorism expert Rohan Gunaratna frequently refers to the invasion of Iraq as a "fatal mistake."[378] London's conservative International Institute for Strategic Studies concluded in 2004 that the occupation of Iraq had become "a potent global recruitment pretext" for jihadists and that the invasion "galvanised" al-Qaeda and "perversely inspired insurgent violence" there.[379] The U.S. National Intelligence Council concluded in a January 2005 report that the war in Iraq had become a breeding ground for a new generation of terrorists; David B. Low, the national intelligence officer for transnational threats, indicated that the report concluded that the war in Iraq provided terrorists with "a training ground, a recruitment ground, the opportunity for enhancing technical skills... There is even, under the best scenario, over time, the likelihood that some of the jihadists who are not killed there will, in a sense, go home, wherever home is, and will therefore disperse to various other countries." The Council's Chairman Robert L. Hutchings said, "At the moment, Iraq is a magnet for international terrorist activity."[380] And the 2006 National Intelligence Estimate, which outlined the considered judgment of all 16 U.S. intelligence agencies, held that "The Iraq conflict has become the 'cause celebre' for jihadists, breeding a deep resentment of US involvement in the Muslim world and cultivating supporters for the global jihadist movement."[381]
Regarding Saddam Hussein's ties to terrorist groups such as Al-Qaeda, the Bush administration has produced inconsistent statements. Asked to describe the connection between the Iraqi leader and the al-Qaeda terror network at an appearance on October 5, 2004 at the Council on Foreign Relations, Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld first refused to answer, then said: "To my knowledge, I have not seen any strong, hard evidence that links the two." Several hours after his appearance, Rumsfeld issued a statement from the Pentagon saying his comment "regrettably was misunderstood" by some. He said he has said since September 2002 that there were ties between Osama bin Laden's terror group and Iraq.[382] Despite statements from the Bush administration, inspectors never found hidden stockpiles of WMD in Iraq, and the September 11 Commission reported no collaborative relationship between Al Qaeda and the Iraqi leadership.[383][384] However, several months prior to the commencement of military action, Saddam Hussein had began providing financial assistance to the families of Palestinian militants killed in fighting with, or civilians killed by, the Israeli military (including relatives of suicide bombers.)[385] He also sponsored a small number of regional groups, designated terrorist organisations by the U.S. Department of State, among them, the People's Mujahedin of Iran.[386] Former National Intelligence Officer Paul R. Pillar notes:
Iraq did provide other kinds of sponsorship to terrorist groups, some of the Palestinian groups that aren't so active anymore... But in terms of it having provided support or sustenance or strength, or having anything close to an alliance with al Qaeda, it simply wasn't there.[387]
In October 2003, Osama bin Laden announced: "Be glad of the good news: America is mired in the swamps of the Tigris and Euphrates. Bush is, through Iraq and its oil, easy prey. Here is he now, thank God, in an embarrassing situation and here is America today being ruined before the eyes of the whole world."[388] Al-Qaeda commander Seif al-Adl gloated about the war in Iraq, indicating, "The Americans took the bait and fell into our trap."[389] A letter thought to be from al-Qaeda leader Atiyah Abd al-Rahman found in Iraq among the rubble where al-Zarqawi was killed and released by the U.S. military in October 2006, indicated that al-Qaeda perceived the war as beneficial to its goals: "The most important thing is that the jihad continues with steadfastness ... indeed, prolonging the war is in our interest."[390]
- Further information: Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda, Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda timeline, and Criticism of the War on Terrorism
See also
- Iraq War misappropriations
- White House Iraq-War forgery allegations/The Way of the World (book)
- 2008 Mosul offensive
- "Curveball"
- Suicide bombings in Iraq since 2003
- List of wars 2003-current
- Al-Anfal Campaign
- Anthony Pratkanis Pyschologist studying social world influences
- Iran–Iraq War
- Carter Doctrine
- Oil reserves in Iraq
- Energy crisis
- Foreign policy of the United States
- Petrodollar warfare
- Asylum in the United States
- United States Army
- Ayad Rahim, Iraqi-American journalist who reports on Middle East affairs
- Vietnam war
- List of British gallantry awards for the Iraq War
- United States military in Iraq
- Iraq Campaign Medal
- Counterinsurgency in Iraq: 2003-2006
Image gallery
References
- ↑ U.S. Department of Defense (2007-02-02). "DoD News Briefing with Secretary Gates and Gen. Pace from Pentagon". Press release. Retrieved on 2008-05-10.
- ↑ "Sectarian divisions change Baghdad’s image", MSNBC (2006-07-03). Retrieved on 2007-02-18.
- ↑ The Brookings Institution Iraq Index: Tracking Variables of Reconstruction & Security in Post-Saddam Iraq October 1, 2007
- ↑ Ricks, Thomas E.; Ann Scott Tyson (2007-01-11). "Intensified Combat on Streets Likely", Washington Post, p. A01.
- ↑ Pincus, Walter. "Violence in Iraq Called Increasingly Complex". Washington Post, November 17, 2006.
- ↑ "Toll rises in Turkey-PKK conflict", Al Jazeera (2008-02-25).
- ↑ "Private contractors outnumber U.S. troops in Iraq". By T. Christian Miller. Los Angeles Times. July 4, 2007.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Roberts, Michelle (2007-02-24). "Contractor deaths add up in Iraq", Associated Press.
- ↑ "A Dark Side to Iraq 'Awakening' Groups", International Herald Tribune (2008-01-04).
- ↑ Bendern, Paul de (2008-02-22). "Turkey launches major land offensive into N.Iraq", Reuters. Retrieved on 2008-02-22.
- ↑ "The Wages of War: Iraqi Combatant and Noncombatant Fatalities in the 2003 Conflict". Project on Defense Alternatives Research Monograph #8. Carl Conetta. October 20, 2003.
- ↑ "New Study Finds: 11,000 to 15,000 Killed in Iraq War; 30% are Non-combatants". Project on Defense Alternatives. Press release October 20, 2003.
- ↑ "19,000 insurgents killed in Iraq since '03". By Jim Michaels. 26 Sept. 2007. USA Today.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 "US military: Bombs kill at least 35, Iraqis say - Yahoo! News<!- Bot generated title ->". News.yahoo.com. Retrieved on 2008-09-15.
- ↑ "US says 11,000 Iraq detainees freed this year - Yahoo! News<!- Bot generated title ->". News.yahoo.com. Retrieved on 2008-09-10.
- ↑ Iraq Coalition Casualty Count: U.S. Casualties - DoD Confirmations
- ↑ Iraq Coalition Casualty Count: Coalition Deaths by Country
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Many official U.S. tables at "Military Casualty Information". See latest totals for injury, disease/other medical. See also: Latest fatality and wounded-in-action totals.
- ↑ "Casualties in Iraq".
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 "Defence Internet Fact Sheets Operations in Iraq: British Casualties". UK Ministry of Defense. Latest combined casualty and fatality tables.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 iCasualties.org (was lunaville.org). Benicia, California. Patricia Kneisler, et al., "Iraq Coalition Casualties".
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 "In outsourced U.S. wars, contractor deaths top 1,000". By Bernd Debusmann. Reuters. July 3, 2007. 10,569 wounded and 933 deaths in Iraq. 224 are U.S. citizens.
- ↑ "Reconstruction report: 916 death claims for civilian contractors in Iraq". USA Today April 30, 2007.
- ↑ "Iraq Coalition Casualties: Contractor Deaths - A Partial List". icasualties.org
- ↑ Yigal Schleifer. "Turkey's Army loses luster over PKK attack | csmonitor.com". Csmonitor.com. Retrieved on 2008-10-27.
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Update on Iraqi Casualty Data by Opinion Research Business, January 2008
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 "Mortality after the 2003 invasion of Iraq: a cross-sectional cluster sample survey"PDF (242 KB). By Gilbert Burnham, Riyadh Lafta, Shannon Doocy, and Les Roberts. The Lancet, October 11, 2006
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 The Human Cost of the War in Iraq: A Mortality Study, 2002-2006PDF (603 KB). By Gilbert Burnham, Shannon Doocy, Elizabeth Dzeng, Riyadh Lafta, and Les Roberts. A supplement to the second Lancet study.
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Alkhuzai AH, Ahmad IJ, Hweel MJ, Ismail TW, et al. (2008). "Violence-Related Mortality in Iraq from 2002 to 2006". N Engl J Med 358 (2): 484–93. doi:. PMID 18184950.
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 WHO country office in Iraq. Iraq Family Health Survey. World Health Organization (WHO.)
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 "New study says 151,000 Iraqi dead", BBC News Online (January 10, 2008).
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 "151,000 civilians killed since Iraq invasion". By Sarah Boseley. January 10, 2008. The Guardian.
- ↑ Allawi, Ali (April 2007) (in English). The Occupation of Iraq: Winning the War, Losing the Peace (1 ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. p. 544. ISBN 0300110154. http://books.google.com/books?id=ptqgNq8xnOAC&printsec=frontcover&ie=ISO-8859-1&output=html.
- ↑ "US Names Coalition of the Willing". Retrieved on 2007-11-03.
- ↑ Center for American Progress (January 29, 2004) "In Their Own Words: Iraq's 'Imminent' Threat" americanprogress.org
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 Senator Bill Nelson (January 28, 2004) "New Information on Iraq's Possession of Weapons of Mass Destruction", Congressional Record
- ↑ "Britain Releases Pre-Iraq War Dossier Used by Tony Blair", Associated Press via Foxnews.com (2008-02-18).
- ↑ Bernstein, Richard; Michael R. Gordon (2006-03-02). "German help on Iraq lasted months", International Herald Tribune.
- ↑ Dougherty, Jill (2004-06-18). "Russia 'warned U.S. about Saddam'", CNN.
- ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 Blix, H. (March 7, 2003) "Transcript of Blix's U.N. presentation" CNN.com
- ↑ "Iraq Survey Group Final Report: Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD)".
- ↑ Shrader, K. (June 22, 2006) "New Intel Report Reignites Iraq Arms Fight" Associated Press
- ↑ "Bush takes responsibility for invasion intelligence", CNN (2005-12-14).
- ↑ "The Weekly Standard, Saddam's al Qaeda Connection".
- ↑ Woods, K.M. and Lacey, J. (2008) "Saddam and Terrorism: Emerging Insights from Captured Iraqi Documents," vol. 1 Institute for Defense Analyses IDA Paper P-4287, pp. ES-1
- ↑ Kerr, R.J., et al. (29 July 2004) "Intelligence and Analysis on Iraq: Issues for the Intelligence Community," MORI Doc. ID 1245667 (Langley, VA: Central Intelligence Agency)
- ↑ Kessler, G. (October 9, 2005) "Interpretation of Bush's Comments Reignites Debate," Washington Post
- ↑ CNN (September 12, 2002) "White House spells out case against Iraq", "the White House released a report early Thursday, listing some of the principal accusations against Iraq and its leader.... Iraq is also accused of sheltering two Palestinian terrorist organizations, and it lists Saddam's decision in 2002 to increase from $10,000 to $25,000 the bounty paid to the families of Palestinian suicide bombers."
- ↑ Wolfowitz, P. (May 30, 2003)
- ↑ "President Discusses the Future of Iraq" The White House, February 26, 2003
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- ↑ Iraq Ethnic Cleansing Archives
- ↑ THE REACH OF WAR: NORTHERN IRAQ; KURDS ADVANCING TO RECLAIM LAND IN NORTHERN IRAQ, New York Times
- ↑ Sunni Arabs driving out Kurds in northern Iraq
- ↑ The other Iraqi civil war, Asia Times
- ↑ Stansfield, Gareth. (2007). Iraq: People, History, Politics. p71
- ↑ "Iraq: Torture Continues at Hands of New Government", Human Rights News (2005-01-25).
- ↑ Dexter Filkins (2005-11-29). "Sunnis Accuse Iraqi Military of Kidnappings and Slayings", The New York Times.
- ↑ "BBC NEWS | Americas | Iraq rape soldier jailed for life<!- Bot generated title ->". News.bbc.co.uk (Last Updated:). Retrieved on 2008-09-10.
- ↑ Neil Mackay (2004-03-14). "Iraq: The Wedding Party Massacre", Sunday Herald.
- ↑ "2 GI's charged with murder of Iraqis - International Herald Tribune<!- Bot generated title ->". Iht.com. Retrieved on 2008-09-10.
- ↑ "Multi-National Force - Iraq - Additional Soldier charged with murder<!- Bot generated title ->". Mnf-iraq.com. Retrieved on 2008-09-10.
- ↑ About Chris Hedges Chris Hedges, former Middle East bureau chief for the New York Times , is a senior fellow at The Nation Institute. His is the author, with Laila Al-Arian, of Collateral Damage and an earlier book, American Fascists: The Christian Right and the War on America (Free Press). more... About Laila Al-Arian Laila Al-Arian is a freelance journalist and co-author, with Chris Hedges, of Collateral Damage: America's War Against Iraqi Civilians (Nation Books), based on their 2007 Nation article "The Other War." more.... "The Other War: Iraq Vets Bear Witness<!- Bot generated title ->". Thenation.com. Retrieved on 2008-09-10.
- ↑ "The Raw Story | Anti-war veterans' group: War crimes are 'encouraged'<!- Bot generated title ->". Rawstory.com. Retrieved on 2008-09-10.
- ↑ Ellen Knickmeyer (2005-06-03). "Iraq Puts Civilian Toll at 12,000", The Washington Post.
- ↑ Paul McGeough (2005-02-02). "Handicapped boy who was made into a bomb", The Sydney Morning Herald.
- ↑ Iraq bombing toll rises. The Age July 2, 2006
- ↑ A Face and a Name. Civilian Victims of Insurgent Groups in Iraq. Human Rights Watch October 2005.
- ↑ "Who are the Iraq Insurgents?", NewsHour with Jim Lehrer (2006-06-12).
- ↑ "Kidnappers Kill Algerian Diplomats", Free Internet Press (2005-07-27).
- ↑ "Captors kill Egypt envoy to Iraq", BBC News (2005-07-08).
- ↑ "Russian diplomat deaths confirmed", BBC News (2006-06-26).
- ↑ Alex Rodriguez, Iraqi shrine blast suspect caught (paid archive), The Chicago Tribune June 29, 2006.
- ↑ "Insurgents kill Bulgarian hostage: Al-Jazeera", CBC News (2004-07-14).
- ↑ "Foreign hostages in Iraq", CBC News (2006-06-22).
- ↑ 4 Contractors murdered by al Qaeda
- ↑ Sabrina Tavernise (2005-06-19). "Iraqis Found in Torture House Tell of Brutality of Insurgents", The New York Times.
- ↑ "Iraq kidnappings stun Kenya press", BBC News (2004-07-23).
- ↑ "World View of US Role Goes from Bad to Worse" (PDF). BBC World Service (2007-01-23). Retrieved on 2007-05-23.
- ↑ "Most people 'want Iraq pull-out'", BBC NEWS (2007-09-07).
- ↑ Soriano, Cesar; Komarow, Steven (2004-04-28). "Poll: Iraqis out of patience", USA Today, Gannett Co. Retrieved on 2007-05-24.
- ↑ "Guardian July Poll" (PDF). ICM Research (July 2006).
- ↑ Zogby, James (March 2007). "Four Years Later: Arab Opinion Troubled by Consequences of Iraq War" (PDF). Arab American Institute.
- ↑ "India: Pro-America, Pro-Bush". Pew Global Attitudes Project. Pew Research Center (2006-02-28).
- ↑ "What the Iraqi Public Wants" -A WorldPublicOpinion.org Poll-, Program on International Policy Attitudes, January 31, 2006
- ↑ "The Iraqi Public on the US Presence and the Future of Iraq" (PDF). World Public Opinion (September 27, 2006). Retrieved on 2008-11-23.
- ↑ Iraq Poll conducted by D3 Systems for the BBC, ABC News, ARD German TV and USA Today. More than 2,000 people were questioned in more than 450 neighbourhoods and villages across all 18 provinces of Iraq between February 25 and March 5, 2007. The margin of error is + or – 2.5%.
- ↑ Iraqis Oppose Oil Development Plans, Poll Finds (August 6, 2007) (Oil Change International, Institute for Policy Studies, War on Want, PLATFORM and Global Policy Forum)
- ↑ Bush, President George W. (2003-09-09). "A Central Front in the War on Terror". Global Message. The White House.
- ↑ Garamone, Jim (2002-09-19). "Iraq Part of Global War on Terrorism, Rumsfeld Says", American Forces Press Service.
- ↑ Bush, President George W. (2006-08-21). "Press Conference by the President", Peace in the Middle East, The White House.
- ↑ Gunaratna, Rohan (Summer 2004). "The Post-Madrid Face of Al Qaeda". Washington Quarterly 27 (3): 98. doi:. http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/016366004323090278.
- ↑ Sengupta, Kim (2004-05-26). "Occupation Made World Less Safe, Pro-War Institute Says", The Independent.
- ↑ Priest, Dana (2005-01-14). "Iraq New Terror Breeding Ground", Washington Post.
- ↑ Office of the Director of National Intelligence (April 2006). "Declassified Key Judgments of the National Intelligence Estimate Trends in Global Terrorism: Implications for the United States". Press release.
- ↑ "Rumsfeld backtracks on al-Qaida, Iraq links", Associated Press via MSNBC (2004-10-05).
- ↑ "U.S. Report Finds No Evidence of Iraq WMD", Associated Press (2004-10-06).
- ↑ Shenon, Philip; Christopher Marquis and Mark Glassman (2004-06-17). "Panel Finds No Qaeda-Iraq Tie", Threats and Responses: The Overview, New York Times.
- ↑ "Palestinians get Saddam funds", BBC News Online (2003-03-13).
- ↑ IRAQ: Iraqi Ties to Terrorism April 29, 2003. Retrieved September 21, 2007. "Iraq has helped the Iranian dissident group Mujahedeen-e-Khalq, the Kurdistan Workers' Party, a separatist organization fighting the Turkish government, and several far-left Palestinian splinter groups that oppose peace with Israel."
- ↑ Paul R. Pillar, The Charlie Rose Show, PBS February 16, 2006 [5]
- ↑ bin Ladin, Usama (2003-10-19). "Message to Iraqis October 2003". News Archive. Al Jazeera English via the Internet Archive. Archived from the original on 2007-11-14.
- ↑ Gerges, Fawaz A. (2005-10-10). "The Iraq War: Planting the Seeds of Al Qaeda's Second Generation", Toward Freedom.
- ↑ Murphy, Dan (2006-10-06). "How Al Qaeda views a long Iraq war", Christian Science Monitor.
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