Colombia

Republic of Colombia República de Colombia  (Spanish)
Flag
Motto: "Libertad y Orden"  (Spanish) "Liberty and Order"
Anthem: "Oh, Gloria Inmarcesible!"  (Spanish)
Capital (and largest city)		Bogotá
Official languages		Spanish
Recognised regional languages		The constitution stipulates that the languages and dialects of ethnic groups are official in their territories[1]
Demonym		Colombian
Government		Presidential republic
-	President	Álvaro Uribe Vélez
-	Vice President	Francisco Santos
-	President of Congress	Hernán Andrade
-	President of the Supreme Court	Francisco Ricaurte
Independence		from Spain
-	Declared	July 20, 1810
-	Recognized	August 7, 1819
Area
-	Total	1,141,748 km2 (26th) 440,839 sq mi
-	Water (%)	8.8
Population
-	November 2008 estimate	44,660,000 (29th)
-	2005 census	42,888,592
-	Density	40/km2 (168th) 104/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2007 estimate
-	Total	$378.624 billion[2] (28th)
-	Per capita	$7,968[2] (82nd)
GDP (nominal)		2007 estimate
-	Total	$202.630 billion[2] (37th)
-	Per capita	$4,264[2] (82nd)
Gini (2006)		52 (high)
HDI (2007)		▲ 0.791 (medium) (75th)
Currency		Peso (COP)
Time zone		(UTC-5)
Drives on the		right
Internet TLD		.co
Calling code		57

Colombia (IPA: /kəˈlʌmbɪə/), Republic of Colombia (Spanish: República de Colombia^?·i, Spanish pronunciation: [re̞ˈpuβ̞lika ð̞e̞ ko̞ˈlõ̞mbja]), is a country in northwestern South America. Colombia is bordered to the east by Venezuela^[3] and Brazil;^[4] to the south by Ecuador and Peru;^[5] to the north by the Atlantic Ocean, through the Caribbean Sea; to the north-west by Panama; and to the west by the Pacific Ocean. Colombia also shares maritime borders with Jamaica, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica.^[6][7] Colombia is the 26th largest nation in the world and the fourth largest in South America (after Brazil, Argentina, and Peru), with an area more than twice that of France. It also has the 29th largest population in the world and the second largest in South America, after Brazil. Colombia has the third largest Spanish-speaking population in the world after Mexico and Spain.

The territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous tribes including the Muisca, Quimbaya, and Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499, and initiated a period of conquest and colonisation which ultimately led to the creation of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (comprising modern-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama) with its capital at Bogotá.^[8] Independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 "Gran Colombia" had collapsed with the secession of Venezuela and Ecuador. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada. The new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858), and then the United States of Colombia (1863), before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886.^[9] Panama seceded in 1903.

Colombia has a long tradition of constitutional government, and the Conservative and Liberal parties, founded in 1843 and 1848 respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas. However, tensions between the two have frequently erupted into violence, most notably in the Thousand Days War (1899-1902) and La Violencia, beginning in 1948. Since the 1960s, government forces, left-wing insurgents and right-wing paramilitaries have been engaged in the continent's longest-running armed conflict. Fuelled by the cocaine trade, this escalated dramatically in the 1990s. However, the insurgents lack the military or popular support necessary to overthrow the government, and in recent years the violence has been decreasing. Many paramilitary groups have demobilised as part of a controversial peace process with the government, and the guerrillas have lost control in many areas where they once dominated.^[9] Meanwhile Colombia's homicide rate, for many years the highest in the world, has almost halved since 2002.^[10]

Colombia is a standing middle power^[11] with the fourth largest economy in South America. It is very ethnically diverse, and the interaction between descendants of the original native inhabitants, Spanish colonists, African slaves and twentieth-century immigrants from Europe and the Middle East has produced a rich cultural heritage. This has also been influenced by Colombia's incredibly varied geography. The majority of the urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains, but Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines. Ecologically, Colombia is considered to be among 17 of the most megadiverse countries in the world.^[12]

Etymology

Christopher Columbus

The word "Colombia" comes from the name of Christopher Columbus (Spanish:Cristóbal Colón, Italian: Cristoforo Colombo). It was conceived by the revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, especially to those territories and colonies under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was then adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819 formed out of the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modern day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela and Ecuador).^[13]

In 1830, when Venezuela and Ecuador separated, the Cundinamarca region that remained became a new country  — the Republic of New Granada. In 1858 New Granada officially changed its name to the Granadine Confederation, then in 1863 the United States of Colombia, before finally adopting its present name  — the Republic of Colombia  — in 1886.^[13]

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Colombia

See also: Natural Regions of Colombia and Geology of Colombia

Shaded relief map of Colombia.

Colombia is the 26th largest nation in the world and the fourth largest country in South America. Located in the northwestern region of South America, it is bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north by Panama and the Caribbean Sea; and to the west by the Pacific Ocean. Colombia is the only country in South America to touch both oceans. Colombia is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, a region of the world subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Colombian surface features are varied; in the extreme west are the narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, which are backed by the Serranía de Baudó, one of the lowest and narrowest of Colombia's mountain ranges. The broad region of the Río Atrato/Río San Juan Lowland is another major land region.

The western mountain range, the Cordillera Occidental, has peaks reaching up to 13,000 ft (4,000 m). The Cauca River Valley, an important agricultural region home to several large cities, separates the Cordillera Occidental from the central mountain range, the Cordillera Central. Several snow-clad volcanoes in the Cordillera Central have summits that rise above 18,000 ft (5,500 m). The valley of the Magdalena River, a major means of transportation, separates the Cordillera Central from the main eastern range, the Cordillera Oriental. This range differs from Colombia's other mountain ranges in that it contains several large basins. In eastern Colombia lies the sparsely populated lowlands called Llanos Orientales, part of the Orinoco River Basin, and the jungle covered Amazon region part of the Amazon River Basin (both basins called eastern plains) cover almost 60 percent of the country's total land area. The northern plains are mostly part of the Caribbean region which includes the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, the Guajira Peninsula, and the Serranía de Macuira.

Climate

Main article: Climate of Colombia

Glacier Snowy peaks of the Nevado del Tolima volcano. 5,200+ metres (17,060 ft).

The climate of Colombia is determined by its proximity to the Equator, with tropical and isothermal climate being most prominent. Climate is also influenced by the trade winds and precipitation which is influenced by the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Colombia is also affected by the El Niño and La Niña phenomena.

Temperatures generally decrease about 3.5°F (2°C) for every 1,000-foot (300-m) increase in altitude above sea level, presenting perpetual snowy peaks to hot river valleys and basins. Rainfall varies by location and is present in two seasons (two dry and two rainy) in Colombia, including one of the highest levels of rainfalls in the world in the Pacific region. Colombia's southeast is often drenched by more than 200 in (500 cm) of rain per year. On the other hand rainfall in parts of the Guajira Peninsula seldom exceeds 30 in (75 cm) per year. Rainfall in most of the rest of the country runs between these two extremes.

The hot and humid Colombian Pacific coast, one of the rainiest regions in the world.

Altitude affects not only temperature, but also vegetation. Indeed, altitude is one of the most important influences on vegetation patterns in Colombia. The mountainous parts of the country can be divided into several vegetation zones according to altitude, although the altitude limits of each zone may vary somewhat depending on the latitude. Below 3,300 ft (1,000 m) are the tropical crops of the tierra caliente (hot land). The most productive land and the majority of the population can be found in the tierra templada (temperate land, 3,300-6,600 ft or 1,000-2,000 m), which provide the best conditions for the country's coffee growers, and the tierra fría (cold land, 6,600-10,500 ft, 2,000-3,200 m), where wheat and potatoes dominate. Beyond this lie the alpine conditions of the zona forestada (forested zone, 10,500-12,800 ft, 3,200-3,900 m) and then the treeless grasslands of the páramos (12,800-15,100 ft, 3,900-4,600 m). Above 15,100 ft (4,600 m), where temperatures are below freezing, is the tierra helada, a zone of permanent snow and ice.

Colombian Flora and Fauna also interact with climate zone patterns. Scrub woodland of scattered trees and bushes dominates the semiarid northeastern steppe and tropical desert. To the south, savannah (tropical grassland) vegetation covers the eastern plains; Colombian portion of the llanos. The rainy areas in the southeast are blanketed by tropical rain forest. In the mountains, the spotty patterns of precipitation in alpine areas complicate vegetation patterns. The rainy side of a mountain may be lush and green, while the other side, in the rain shadow, may be parched. As a result Colombia is considered to be among 17 of the most megadiverse countries in the world.^[12]

Environmental issues

Main article: Environmental issues in Colombia

Nevado del Ruiz volcano, erupted in 1985 causing the Armero tragedy.

The environmental challenges Colombia is facing are caused by both natural hazards and human induced effects on the environment. Natural hazards are determined by the global positioning of Colombia by the Pacific ring of fire causing geological instability. Colombia has 15 major volcanoes which have caused tragedies like Armero and geological faults that have caused numerous devastating earthquakes like the 1999 Armenia earthquake. Heavy floods in the mountainous regions as well as in the low lying watersheds and coastal zones regularly cause deaths and considerable material damage every year during the rainy season. Rainfall intensities vary with the ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) which occurs at unpredictable cycles, causing severe inundations.On the other side, water supply for the urban centers Bogota, Cali, Medellin and many smaller cities comes increasingly under stress as watersheds are affected and ground water tables fall.

The Magdalena River at Santa Cruz de Mompox.

Human induced deforestation has substantially changed the andean landscapes and is creeping into Amazonia and into the Pacific region of Choco. Major causes of deforestation are linked to illegal coca production with annual forest losses of around 120.000 ha and to the conversion of tropical lowland forests to oil palm plantations. However, compared to neighbouring countries such as Brazil, Venezuela, Ecuador and Peru deforestation rates of Colombia are still relatively small.

Climate change will most likely affect ecosystems of Colombia in a series of ways. While rainfall intensities, floods and soil erosion will increase in many areas during rainy periods, Andean valleys and Paramos will likely suffer less precipitation in dry seasons causing increased water stress for the natural vegetation and agricultural production. Estimates by the Meteorological Service predict that glaciers on top of the highest mountains might vanish completely by the end of this century. The islands of the San Andres and Providence Archipel and coastal zones will come under additional pressure by raising sea levels and increased hurricane activities both effects of a temperature raise.

The population increase and the burning of fossil fuels and industry, among other human produced waste has contaminated the environment of major cities and nearby water sources.

Participants in the Colombian armed conflict have also contributed to the pollution of the environment in Colombia. The illegally armed groups have deforested large portions of land to plant illegal crops (mostly on government designated protected areas) while the government fumigated these crops using hazardous chemicals. The guerrillas also destroyed oil pipelines creating major ecological disasters.

History

Main articles: History of Colombia, Timeline of Colombian history, La Violencia, El Bogotazo, National Front (Colombia), and Colombian armed conflict (1964–present)

Pre-Columbian era

The Zipa used to cover his body in gold and, from his raft, he offered treasures to the Guatavita goddess in the middle of the sacred lake. This old Muisca tradition became the origin of the El Dorado legend.

Approximately 10,000 BC, hunter-gatherer societies existed near present-day Bogotá (at "El Abra" and "Tequendama") which traded with one another and with cultures living in the Magdalena River Valley.^[14] Beginning in the first millennium BC, groups of Amerindians developed the political system of "cacicazgos" with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques. Within Colombia, the two cultures with the most complex cacicazgo systems were the Tayronas in the Caribbean Region, and the Muiscas in the highlands around Bogotá, both of which were of the Chibcha language family. The Muisca people are considered to have had one of the most developed political systems in South America, after the Incas.^[15]

Spanish discovery, conquest and colonization

Spanish explorers made the first exploration of the Caribbean littoral in 1499 led by Rodrigo de Bastidas. Christopher Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502. In 1508, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa started the conquest of the territory through the region of Urabá. In 1513, he was also the first European to discover the Pacific Ocean which he called Mar del Sur (or "Sea of the South") and which in fact would bring the Spaniards to Peru and Chile. The territory's main population was made up of hundreds of tribes of the Chibchan and Carib, currently known as the Caribbean people, whom the Spaniards conquered through warfare and alliances, while resulting disease such as smallpox and the conquest itself caused a demographic reduction among the indigenous.^[16] In the sixteenth century, Europeans began to bring slaves from Africa.

Independence from Spain

Francisco de Paula Santander, Simón Bolivar and other heroes of the Independence of Colombia in the Congress of Cúcuta.

Since the beginning of the periods of Conquest and Colonization, there were several rebel movements under Spanish rule, most of them being either crushed or remaining too weak to change the overall situation. The last one, which sought outright independence from Spain, sprang up around 1810, following the independence of St. Domingue in 1804 (present day Haiti), who provided a non-negligible degree of support to the eventual leaders of this rebellion: Simón Bolívar and Francisco de Paula Santander. Simón Bolívar had become the first president of Colombia and Francisco de Paula Santander was Vice President; when Simón Bolívar stepped down, Santander became the second president of Colombia. The rebellion finally succeeded in 1819 when the territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the Republic of Greater Colombia organized as a Confederation along Ecuador and Venezuela (Panama was part of Colombia).

Post-Independence and republicanism

The Gran Colombia.

Internal political and territorial divisions led to the secession of Venezuela and Quito (today's Ecuador) in 1830. At this time, the so-called "Department of Cundinamarca" adopted then the name "Nueva Granada", which it kept until 1856 when it became the "Confederación Granadina" (Grenadine Confederation). After a two year civil war in 1863, the "United States of Colombia" was created, lasting until 1886, when the country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia. Internal divisions remained between the bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody civil wars, the most significant being the Thousand Days civil war (1899 - 1902) which together with the United States of America's intentions to influence in the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of Panama in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation. Colombia engulfed in a year long war with Peru over a territorial dispute involving the Amazonas Department and its capital Leticia. Soon after, Colombia achieved a relative degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as La Violencia ("The Violence"). Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal Presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on April 9, 1948. This assassination caused riots in Bogotá and became known as El Bogotazo, the violence from these riots spread through out the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians. From 1953 to 1964 the violence between the two political parties decreased first when Gustavo Rojas deposed the President of Colombia in a coup d'etat, and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under the military junta of General Gabriel París Gordillo.

After Rojas deposition the two political parties Colombian Conservative Party and Colombian Liberal Party agreed to the creation of a "National Front", whereby the Liberal and Conservative parties would govern jointly. The presidency would be determined by an alternating conservative and liberal president every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices. The National Front ended "La Violencia", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. In the end, the contradictions between each successive Liberal and Conservative administration made the results decidedly mixed. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems continued and guerrilla groups were formally created such as the FARC, ELN and M-19 to fight the government and political apparatus. These guerrilla groups were dominated by Marxist doctrines.

Emerging in the late 1970s, powerful and violent drug cartels developed during the 1980s and 1990s. The Medellín Cartel under Pablo Escobar and the Cali Cartel, in particular, exerted political, economic and social influence in Colombia during this period. These cartels also financed and influenced different illegal armed groups throughout the political spectrum. Some enemies of these allied with the guerrillas and created or influenced paramilitary groups.

The new Colombian Constitution of 1991 was ratified after being drafted by the Constituent Assembly of Colombia. The constitution included key provisions on political, ethnic, human and gender rights. The new constitution initially prohibited the extradition of Colombian nationals. There were accusations of lobbying by drug cartels in favor of this prohibition. The cartels had previously promoted a violent campaign against extradition, leading to many terrorist attack and mafia style executions. They also tried to influence the government and political structure of Colombia by means of corruption, as in the case of the 8000 Process scandal.

Members of the Colombian National Army during a field training exercise.

In recent years, the country has continued to be plagued by the effects of the drug trade, guerrilla insurgencies like FARC and paramilitary groups such as the AUC (later demobilized, though paramilitarism remains active), which along with other minor factions have engaged in a bloody internal armed conflict. President Andrés Pastrana and the FARC attempted to negotiate a solution to the conflict between 1998 and 2002 but failed to do so. President Andrés Pastrana also began to implement the Plan Colombia initiative, with the dual goal of ending the armed conflict and promoting a strong anti-narcotic strategy.

During the presidency of Álvaro Uribe, who was elected on the promise of applying military pressure on the FARC and other outlawed groups, some security indicators have improved, showing a decrease in reported kidnappings (from 3700 in the year 2000 to 800 in 2005) and a decrease of more than 48% in homicides between July 2002 and May 2005 and of the terrorist guerilla itself reduced from 16.900 insurgents to 8.900 insurgents. It is argued that these improvements have favored economic growth and tourism.^[17] The 2006–2007 Colombian parapolitics scandal emerged due to the revelations and judicial implications of past and present links between paramilitary groups, mainly the AUC, and some government officials and many politicians, most of them allied to the governing administration.^[18]

Government, law and politics

Main article: Government of Colombia

See also: Colombian Constitution of 1991

Casa de Nariño, the presidential palace in Bogotá houses the President of Colombia and maximum representative of the Executive Branch of Colombia.

The Government of Colombia takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic as established in the Colombian Constitution of 1991. The Colombian government is divided into three branches of power; the executive, legislative and judicial with special control institutions and electoral institutions. The President of Colombia is the highest representative of the executive branch of government in Colombia and is also the head of state and head of government with supreme administrative authority, followed by the Vice President and the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Colombia.

At a provincial level the executive is managed by department governors, municipal mayors at municipal level and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions such as corregidor for corregimientos. The legislative branch of government in Colombia is represented by the National Congress of Colombia which is formed by an upper house the Senate and the Chamber of Representatives. At a provincial level the legislative branch is represented by department assemblies and a municipal level with municipal councils. Both the legislative and executive branches share most of the government power while the judicial branch of Colombia functions as an independent body from the other two branches which are vested with a shared power. The judicial branch under a adversarial system is represented by the Supreme Court of Justice which is the highest entity in this branch but shared in responsibility with the Council of State, Constitutional Court and the Superior Council of the Judicature which also have jurisdictional and regional courts.

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Departments of Colombia and Municipalities of Colombia

See also: List of cities in Colombia and Corregimiento

Colombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital district which is treated as a department. There are in total 10 districts assigned to cities in Colombia including Bogotá, Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta, Tunja, Cúcuta, Popayán, Buenaventura, Tumaco and Turbo. Colombia is also subdivided into some municipalities which form departments, each with a municipal seat capital city assigned. Colombia is also subdivided into corregimientos which form municipalities. Each department has a local government which is headed by a department governor and its own department assembly elected for a period of four years in a regional election. Each municipality is headed by a municipal mayor and municipal council, and each corregimiento by an elected corregidor or local leader.

Department Capital city 1  Amazonas Leticia 2  Antioquia Medellín 3  Arauca Arauca 4  Atlántico Barranquilla 5  Bolívar Cartagena 6  Boyacá Tunja 7  Caldas Manizales 8  Caquetá Florencia 9  Casanare   Yopal 10  Cauca Popayán 11  Cesar Valledupar       12  Chocó Quibdó 13  Córdoba Montería 14  Cundinamarca Bogotá 15  Guainía Inírida 16  Guaviare San José del Guaviare 17  Huila Neiva

Department Capital city 18  La Guajira   Riohacha 19  Magdalena Santa Marta   20  Meta Villavicencio 21  Nariño Pasto 22  North Santander Cúcuta 23  Putumayo Mocoa 24  Quindío Armenia 25  Risaralda Pereira 26  San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina San Andrés 27  Santander Bucaramanga 28  Sucre Sincelejo 29  Tolima Ibagué 30  Valle del Cauca Cali 31  Vaupés Mitú 32  Vichada Puerto Carreño 33  Capital District Bogotá

Some departments have also local administrative regional subdivisions such as the departments of Antioquia and Cundinamarca, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other. In the case of some department where the population is still scarce and there are security problems such as in eastern Colombian departments of Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada there special administrative definitions for territories, some are considered Department corregimientos, which are a hybrid between a corregimiento and a municipality. The difference besides the population is also subject to a cut in the assigned budget.

Defense

Main article: Military of Colombia

Colombian Air Force

Colombian Army soldiers

A Colombian Navy ARC Alirante Padilla frigate

Colombian Air Force Kfir fighter aircraft

The executive branch of government is in charge of managing the defense affairs of Colombia with the President of Colombia being the supreme chief of the armed forces, followed by the Minister of Defense, which controls the Military of Colombia and the Colombian National Police among other institutions. The Colombian military is divided into three branches with their respective chains of command; the Colombian National Army, the Colombian Air Force and the Colombian National Armada.

The national police functions as a gendarmerie independently from the Military as the law enforcement agency for the entire country. Each of these operates with their own intelligence apparatus and also separately from the national intelligence agency Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad. The National Police has a presence in all municipality seats of Colombia, while the National Army is formed by divisions, regiments and special units. The Colombian National Armada is formed by the Colombian Marine Corps, Naval Force of the Pacific, Naval Force of the Caribbean, Naval Force of the South, Colombia Coast Guards, Naval Aviation and the Specific Command of San Andres y Providencia. The Colombian Air Force is formed by 13 air units: EMAVI, ESUFA, IMA, CACOM 1, CACOM 2, CACOM 3, CACOM 4, CACOM 5, CACOM 6, CATAM, CAMAN, GACAR and GAORI.

Foreign affairs

Main articles: Foreign relations of Colombia and Colombian diplomatic missions

The Foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President of Colombia and managed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Colombia has diplomatic missions in all continents (but not all countries) and is also represented in multilateral organizations at the following locations:

• Brussels (Mission to the European Union)
• Geneva (Permanent Missions to the United Nations and other international organizations)
• Montevideo (Permanent Missions to the Latin American Integration Association and Mercosur)
• Nairobi (Permanent Missions to the United Nations and other international organizations)
• New York (Permanent Mission to the United Nations)
• Paris (Permanent Mission to UNESCO)
• Rome (Permanent Mission to the Food and Agriculture Organization)
• Washington DC (Permanent Mission to the Organization of American States)

The foreign relations of Colombia are mostly concentrated on combating the illegal drug trade, the fight against terrorism, improving Colombia's image in the international community, expanding the international market for Colombian products, and environmental issues. Colombia receives special military and commercial co-operation and support in its fight against internal armed groups from the United States, mainly through Plan Colombia, as well as special financial preferences from the European Union in certain products.

Politics of Colombia

Main articles: Politics of Colombia, Elections in Colombia, and List of political parties in Colombia

As a rule, voters are not allowed to wear political propaganda in allusion to a candidate or party, or have electronic devices on their possession while voting.

Current President Alvaro Uribe.

The Politics of Colombia take place in the framework of a presidential representative democratic republic as established in the Colombian Constitution of 1991. The constitution vested the National Electoral Council along with the National Registry of the Civil State with the function of organizing and controlling the electoral process in Colombia. Since the 2005 reform the electoral process abides by the Law 974 of 2005 which modified the way political parties organize and interact in the government. Colombia goes through three electoral processes to elect candidates for a period of four years; a Presidential election, for president and vice president candidates (authorized to serve one reelection, 8 years), a legislative election for congress; senate and chamber of representatives (authorized many terms through reelection) and a regional election to elect department governors, department assemblies, municipal mayors and municipal councils and Local administrative juntas (executive regional leaders are only authorized one term in office).

The last presidential and legislative elections were on May 28, 2006, in which president Álvaro Uribe was reelected by a vote of 62%, with 22% going to Carlos Gaviria of the Democratic Pole, and 12% to Horacio Serpa of the Liberal Party. Colombia's bicameral parliament is the Congress of Colombia consists of a 166-seat Chamber of Representatives of Colombia and a 102-seat Senate of Colombia. Members of both houses are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. With congressmen, Colombia also elects the president. Department deputies, city councils and mayors are elected one year and five months after the president's and congressmen's election. The latest regional election was on October 28, 2007 with some 27 million Colombians apt to vote to elect between some 86 thousand candidates to represent 1,098 Colombian municipalities and 32 governors of Colombian Departments. Colombian authorities mobilized 167,559 soldiers and policemen in order to vigil the 9,950 voting sites.^[19]

The election process in the judicial system is headed by the Constitutional Court and members are appointed by the Congress of Colombia out of nominations made by the President and other high ranking tribunals, presidents of courts in the other hand are elected in internal elections. In Electoral Institutions and Control Institutions of Colombia officials are also appointed by the president and approved by congress like the Inspector General of Colombia.

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Colombia and Agriculture in Colombia

GDP growth 2001-2007

Plantation of Colombian coffee, Quindio. Coffee is the main agricultural export of Colombia.

Colombia's economy is fueled by abundant natural resources, a highly literate population and relatively high-valued currency. After experiencing decades of steady growth (average GDP growth exceeded 4% in the 1970-1998 period), Colombia experienced a recession in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since 1929), and the recovery from that recession was long and painful. Colombia's economy suffers from weak domestic and foreign demand, austere government budgets, and serious internal armed conflicts.

The IMF Economic Indicators published on September 2006, forecast the Colombian GDP to reach US$156.69 billion in 2008. Inflation has been below 6% for 2004, 2005, and 2006. Colombia's main exports include manufactured goods (41.32% of exports), petroleum (28.28%), coal (13.17%), and coffee (6.25%). Unofficially, illegal drugs are also a major export.^[20] Colombia is one of the largest producers of pop-up books in the world.^[21]

Colombia is also the largest exporter of plantains to the United States. It also exports many types of sugar crops. Within Latin America, Colombia is known as a provider of fine lingerie, with the industry being centered in Medellín. All imports, exports, and the general trade balance are in record levels, and the inflow of export dollars has resulted in substantial reevaluation of the Colombian Peso.

Downtown Bogotá

The problems facing the country range from pension system problems to drug dealing to moderately high unemployment (11%). Several international financial institutions have praised the economic reforms introduced by current President Álvaro Uribe, which include measures designed to bring the public-sector deficit below 2.5% of gross domestic product (GDP). The government's economic policy and its controversial democratic security strategy have engendered a growing sense of confidence in the economy, and GDP growth in 2003 was among the highest in Latin America. On May 28, 2007, the American magazine BusinessWeek published an article naming Colombia the most Extreme Emerging Market on Earth.^[22]

The principal cities of the country are Bogotá (the capital of the country), Medellín (one of the principal industrial centers of Colombia and South America), Santiago de Cali (the third principal economic center of Colombia), Barranquilla (the principal port of the country), Cartagena (the second principal port of Colombia and a popular tourist destination), Bucaramanga (an industrial city and a university center) and Cúcuta (the principal border city of Colombia; its "Zona Franca" or Free Port is one of the most active in Colombia and all of Latin America).

Tourism

See also: Tourism in Colombia and Festivals in Colombia

Tourists in Cartagena.

View of mountains in Melgar Colombia

View of Bogota from Monserrate Colombia.

The other numerous public holidays, including the celebrations surrounding the Independence of Colombia.^[23]

The most notable festivities are the Cali's Fair, the Barranquilla's Carnival, the Bogotá summer festival, the Iberoamerican Theater Festival, the Festival of the Flowers, the Vallenato Legend Festival, Carnival of Blacks and Whites and the Fiestas del Mar. Despite Travel advisories warning not to travel to Colombia due to Colombian armed conflict, the country continues to attract more tourists in recent years. The apparent cause is the current hardline approach of President Álvaro Uribe called democratic security to push rebels groups farther away from the major cities, highways and tourist sites that may attract international visitors. Since President Uribe took office in 2002, he has notably increased Colombia's stability and security by significantly boosting its military strength and police presence throughout the country.

This has achieved fruitful results for the country's economy, particularly international tourism. In 2006, Colombia received some 1.5 million international visitors, an astonishing increase of about 50% from the previous year. Lonely Planet, a world travel publisher, picked Colombia as one of their top 10 world destinations for 2006.^[24] The World Tourism Organization reported in 2004 that Colombia achieved the third highest percentage increase of tourist arrivals in South America between 2000 and 2004 (9.2%). Only Peru and Suriname had higher increases during the same period.^[25] Because of the improved security, Caribbean cruise ships tours stop in Cartagena and Santa Marta. To further point out the improved security in the country, in June 2007, the Travel Channel's show, 5 Takes Latin America, aired an episode on Colombia. Points of interest on the show were Bogotá, Cocora Valley in Salento, and the Salt Cathedral of Zipaquirá.^[26]. In November 2008, a report of the British Chancellery emphasized that the risks of visiting the country for their conationals have been significantly reduced. Additionally, the official notice remarks Colombia as "the most stable and old democracy in Latinamerica". Also, Germany removed Colombia from the list of the Schengen system.^[27]

Arrecifes beach at the Tayrona Park, one of main eco-tourist destinations.

The varied and rich geography, flora and fauna of Colombia has also developed an eco-tourist industry, mostly developed in the National Natural Parks of Colombia which include the areas of Amacayacu Park in the Department of Amazonas, Colombian National Coffee Park in the town of Montenegro, Quindío, the Nevado del Ruiz volcano in Los Nevados National Park (near the city of Manizales), Cocora valley in Salento, Quindío, PANACA theme Park, PANACA Savanna Park, Tayrona Park in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range (near the city of Santa Marta), the Tatacoa Desert, the Chicamocha Canyon National Park, Gorgona and Malpelo islands, as well as Cabo de la Vela in the Guajira Peninsula.

Transportation

Main article: Transportation in Colombia

Occidente tunnel, Antioquia.

Colombia has a network of national highways maintained by the Instituto Nacional de Vías or INVIAS (National Institute of Roadways) government agency under the Ministry of Transport. The Pan-American Highway travels through Colombia, connecting the country with Venezuela to the east and Ecuador to the south.

Colombia's principal airport is El Dorado International Airport in Bogotá. Several national airlines (Avianca, AeroRepública, AIRES , SATENA and EasyFly, ), and international airlines (such as Iberia, American Airlines, Varig, Copa, Continental, Delta, Air Canada, Air France, Aerolineas Argentinas, Aerogal, TAME, TACA) operate from El Dorado. Bogotá's airport is one of the largest and most expensive in Latin America. Because of its central location in Colombia and America, it is preferred by national land transportation providers, as well as national and international air transportation providers.

Biofuels

Colombia is discussing current trends and challenges as well as recent international developments in the biofuels sector with the intention of contributing to the development of a sustainable and competitive biofuels strategy for Colombia and the region.^[28][29]

Arturo Infante Villarreal is the National Biofuels Coordinator, which is within the Department of National Planning.^[30]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Colombia

See also: List of Colombian Departments by population

Colombian people at the Cali Fair

With an estimated 44.6 million people in 2008, Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico. The population increased at a rate of 1.9% between 1975 and 2005, predicted to drop to 1.2% over the next decade. Colombia is projected to have a population of 50.7 million by 2015. These trends are reflected in the country's age profile. In 2005 over 30% of the population were under 15 years old, compared to just 5.1% aged 65 and over. Life expectancy at birth in 2005 was 72.3; 2.1% would not reach the age of 5, 9.2% would not reach the age of 40.^[31]

The population is concentrated in the Andean highlands and along the Caribbean coast. The nine eastern lowlands departments, comprising about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 3% of the population and a density of less than one person per square kilometer (two persons per square mile). Traditionally a rural society, movement to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-twentieth century, and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America. The urban population increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to 60% in 1975, and by 2005 the figure stood at 72.7%.^[32][31] The population of Bogotá alone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 7 million today. In total thirty cities now have populations of 100,000 or more.

Ethnic groups

Afro-Colombian Women in Cartagena

The census data in Colombia does not record ethnicity, other than that of those identifying themselves as members of particular minority ethnic groups, so overall percentages are essentially estimates from other sources and can vary from one to another.^[33]

According to the CIA World Factbook, the majority of the population (58%) is mestizo, or of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry. 20% is of European ancestry only, 14% mulatto (of mixed European and black African ancestry), 4% of black African ancestry only, and 3% zambo (of mixed Amerindian and black African ancestry). Pure indigenous Amerindians comprise only 1% of the population.^[9] The overwhelming majority of Colombians speak Spanish (see also Colombian Spanish), but in total 101 languages are listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue database, of which 80 are spoken today as living languages. Most of these belong to the Chibchan, Arawak and Cariban linguistic families. The Quechua language, spoken by descendants of the Inca empire, has also extended northwards into Colombia, mainly in urban centers of the southern highlands. There are currently about 500,000 speakers of indigenous languages.^[34]

Indigenous peoples

Main article: Indigenous peoples in Colombia

The Wayuu represent the largest indigenous ethnic group in Colombia.^[35]

Before the Spanish colonization of what is now Colombia, the territory was home to a significant number of indigenous peoples. Many of these were absorbed into the mestizo population, but the remainder currently represents over eighty-five distinct cultures. 567 reserves (resguardos) established for indigenous peoples occupy 365,004 square kilometres (over 30% of the country's total) and are inhabited by more than 800,000 people in over 67,000 families.^[36] The 1991 constitution established their native languages as official in their territories, and most of them have bilingual education (native and Spanish).

Some of the largest indigenous groups are the Wayuu,^[35] the Arhuacos, the Muisca, the Kuna, the Paez, the Tucano and the Guahibo. Cauca, La Guajira and Guainia have the largest indigenous populations.

Immigrant groups

Main article: Immigration to Colombia

The first and most substantial wave of modern immigration to Colombia consisted of Spanish colonists, following the arrival of Europeans in 1499. However a range of other Europeans (Dutch, German, Italian, French, Swiss, Belgian and Basques, also many North Americans) migrated to the country in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and, in smaller numbers Poles, Lithuanians, English, Irish and Croats during and after the Second World War. For example, former Mayor of Bogotá Antanas Mockus is the son of Lithuanian immigrants.

Many immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from the Middle East. Barranquilla (the largest city of the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations of Lebanese and Arabs, Sephardi Jews, Roma, and people of Italian, German, and French descent. For example, the singer Shakira, a native of Barranquilla, has both Lebanese and Italian ancestry. There are also important communities of Chinese and Japanese.

Black Africans were brought as slaves, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the sixteenth century and continuing into the nineteenth century. Large Afro-Colombian communities are found today on the Caribbean and Pacific coasts. The population of the department of Chocó, running along the northern portion of Colombia's Pacific coast, is over 80% black.^[37]

Education

Main article: Education in Colombia

Santander Square (nicknamed Che Square), Bogotá campus of the National University of Colombia. The National University is the largest state-run university in Colombia.

The educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at a preschool academy until age 6. Primary education is then free and compulsory. Secondary education (educación media) begins at age 11 and lasts up to six years, in some cases seven (mostly in private schools, where it is usually vocational training). Secondary school graduates are awarded the diploma (high-school diploma). However in many rural areas, teachers are poorly qualified, and only the five years of primary school are offered. The school year can extend from February to November or from August to June, and in many public schools attendance is split into morning and afternoon "shifts", in order to accommodate the large numbers of children.

Public spending on education as a proportion of gross domestic product in 2006 was 4.7% — one of the highest rates in Latin America — as compared with 2.4% in 1991. This represented 14.2% of total government expenditure.^[38][31] In 2006, the primary and secondary net enrolment rates stood at 88% and 65% respectively, slightly below the regional average. School life expectancy was 12.4 years.^[38] A total of 92.3% of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate, including 97.9% of those aged 15-24, both figures slightly higher than the regional average.^[38] However, literacy levels are considerably lower in rural areas.^[39]

Colombia has 24 public and numerous private universities. These are concentrated in Bogotá, which has become known as "the Athens of South America".^[40] Most undergraduate university degree courses last five years.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Colombia

See also: Religious freedom in Colombia

The National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are hard to obtain. However, based on various studies, more than 95% of the population adheres to Christianity,^[41] the vast majority of which (between 81% and 90%) are Roman Catholics. About 1% of Colombians adhere to indigenous religions and under 1% to Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. However, despite high numbers of adherents, around 60% of respondents to a poll by El Tiempo reported that they did not practice their faith actively.^[42]

The Colombian constitution guarantees religious freedom, but also states that the State "is not atheist or agnostic, nor indifferent to Colombians' religious sentiment." Religious groups are readily able to obtain recognition as organized associations, but some smaller ones have faced difficulty in obtaining the additional recognition required to offer chaplaincy services in public facilities and to perform legally recognised marriages.^[42]

Culture

Main articles: Culture of Colombia and Music of Colombia

Fiesta in Palenque. Afro-Colombian tradition from San Basilio de Palenque, a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity since 2005.

Colombia lies at the crossroads of Latin America and the broader American continent, and as such has been marked by a wide range of cultural influences. Native American, Spanish and other European, African, American, Caribbean, and Middle Eastern influences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in Colombia's modern culture. Urban migration, industrialization, globalization, and other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression.

Historically, the country's imposing landscape left its various regions largely isolated from one another, resulting in the development of very strong regional identities, in many cases stronger than the national. Modern transport links and means of communication have mitigated this and done much to foster a sense of nationhood, but social and political instability, and in particular fears of armed groups and bandits on intercity highways, have contributed to the maintenance of very clear regional differences. Accent, dress, music, food, politics and general attitude vary greatly between the Bogotanos and other residents of the central highlands, the paisas of Antioquia and the coffee region, the costeños of the Caribbean coast, the llaneros of the eastern plains, and the inhabitants of the Pacific coast and the vast Amazon region to the south-east.

US President Bill Clinton and daughter Chelsea during a visit to Cartagena, Colombia, where they were greeted by the Children of Vallenato.

Festival of the Flowers in Medellín, Antioquia.

An inheritance from the colonial era, Colombia remains a deeply Roman Catholic country, and maintains a large base of Catholic traditions which provide a point of unity for its multicultural society. Colombia has many celebrations and festivals throughout the year, and the majority are rooted in these Catholic religious traditions. However, many are also infused with a diverse range of other influences. Prominent examples of Colombia's festivals include Barranquilla's Carnival, the Carnival of Blacks and Whites, Medellín's Festival of the Flowers and Bogotá's Ibero-American Theater Festival

The mixing of various different ethnic traditions is reflected in Colombia's music and dance. The most well-known Colombian genres are cumbia and vallenato, the latter now strongly influenced by global pop culture. A powerful, and unifying, cultural medium in Colombia is television. Most famously, the telenovela Betty La Fea has gained international success through localized versions in the United States, Mexico, and elsewhere. Television has also played a role in the development of the local film industry.

As in many Latin American countries, Colombians have a passion for football (soccer). The Colombian national football team is seen as a symbol of unity and national pride, though local clubs also inspire fierce loyalty and sometimes-violent rivalries. Colombia has "exported" many famous players, such as Freddy Rincon, Carlos Valderrama, Iván Ramiro Córdoba, and Faustino Asprilla. Other Colombian athletes have also achieved success, including NASCAR's Juan Pablo Montoya, Major League Baseball's Edgar Rentería and Orlando Cabrera, and the PGA Tour's Camilo Villegas.

Other famous Colombians include the Nobel Prize winning author Gabriel Garcia Marquez, the artist Fernando Botero, the musicians Shakira, Juanes, and Carlos Vives, and the actors Catalina Sandino Moreno, John Leguizamo, Catherine Siachoque and Sofia Vergara.

The cuisine of Colombia developed mainly from the food traditions of European countries. Spanish, Italian and French culinary influences can all be seen in Colombian cooking. The cuisine of neighboring Latin American countries, Mexico, the United States and the Caribbean, as well as the cooking traditions of the country's indigenous inhabitants, have also all influenced Colombian food.

Many national symbols, both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia's diverse cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people, have in common. Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through the Ministry of Culture.

See also

Colombia topics History Timeline Indigenous peoples · Spanish conquest · New Kingdom of Granada · Viceroyalty of New Granada · Bolívar's War (Independence) · United Provinces of New Granada · Gran Colombia · Republic of New Granada · Granadine Confederation · United States of Colombia · Republic of Colombia · Thousand Days War · Separation of Panama · Colombia-Peru War · La Violencia · National Front · Current internal armed conflict By topic Demographic · Economic · Military · Natural Geography General Geology · Natural Regions (Caribbean · Pacific · Andean · Amazon · Orinoquía · Insular) By topic Cities · Climate · Mountains · Islands · Rivers · Fauna · Flora · Protected Areas · Environmental issues · Natural hazards Government Constitution Law · Bill of Rights · Separation of Powers Executive President · Vice President · Council of Ministers · Government agencies Legislative Congress (Senate · Representatives) Judicial Superior Council · Attorney General · Supreme Court · Constitutional Court Control Comptroller General · Auditor General · Inspector General · Ombudsman Politics Political parties · Electoral system · Elections · Political ideologies (Liberalism · Conservatism · Guerrilla movements · Paramilitarism) · Political scandals Economy Agriculture · Banking · Central Bank · Communications · Industry · Companies · Currency · Energy and mining · Stock Exchange · Taxation · Poverty Demographics 1993 Census · 2005 Census · Immigration · Emigration · Languages (Colombian Spanish) · Health · Education · Religion · Metropolitan Areas · Human rights · Drug trafficking · Water supply and sanitation Culture Architecture · Art · Handicrafts · Cinema · Cuisine · Festivals · Folklore · Languages · LGBT · Literature · Media · Medicine · Music · Mythology · National symbols · Public holidays · Science and technology · Sport · Tourism Transportation Vehicles · Highways · Airports · Railroads Portal

References

Internet

Further reading

• (Spanish) Academia Colombiana de Historia (1986), Historia extensa de Colombia (41 volumes). Bogotá: Ediciones Lerner, 1965-1986. ISBN 9589501338 (Complete work)
• (Spanish) Barrios, Luis (1984), Historia de Colombia. Fifth edition, Bogotá: Editorial Cultural
• (Spanish) Bedoya F., Víctor A. (1944), Historia de Colombia: independencia y república con bases fundamentales en la colonia. Colección La Salle, Bogotá: Librería Stella
• Bushnell, David (1993), The Making of Modern Colombia: A Nation in Spite of Itself. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0520082893
• (Spanish) Caballero Argaez, Carlos (1987), 50 años de economía: de la crisis del treinta a la del ochenta. Second edition, Colección Jorge Ortega Torres, Bogotá: Editorial Presencia, Asociación Bancaria de Colombia. ISBN 9589040039
• (Spanish) Cadavid Misas, Roberto (2004), Cursillo de historia de Colombia: de la conquista a la independencia. Bogotá: Intermedio Editores. ISBN 9587091345
• (Spanish) Calderón Schrader, Camilo; Gil, Antonio; Torras, Daniel (2001), Enciclopedia de Colombia (4 volumes). Barcelona: Céano Grupo Editorial, 2001. ISBN 8449419476 (Complete work)
• (Spanish) Calderón Schrader, Camilo (1993), Gran enciclopedia de Colombia (11 volumes). Bogotá: Círculo de Lectores. ISBN 9582802944 (Complete work)
• (Spanish) Cavelier Gaviria, Germán (2003), Centenario de Panamá: una historia de la separación de Colombia en 1903. Bogotá: Universidad Externado de Colombia. ISBN 9586167186
• (Spanish) Forero, Manuel José (1946), Historia analítica de Colombia desde los orígenes de la independencia nacional. Second edition, Bogotá: Librería Voluntad.
• (Spanish) Gómez Hoyos, Rafael (1992), La independencia de Colombia. Madrid: Editorial Mapfre, Colecciones Mapfre 1492. ISBN 8471005964
• (Spanish) Granados, Rafael María (1978), Historia general de Colombia: prehistoria, conquista, colonia, independencia y Repúbica. Eighth edition, Bogotá: Imprenta Departamental Antonio Nariño.
• (Spanish) Hernández de Alba, Guillermo (2004), Como nació la República de Colombia. Colección Bolsilibros. Bogotá: Academia Colombiana de Historia. ISBN 9588040353
• (Spanish) Hernández Becerra, Augusto (2001), Ordenamiento y desarreglo territorial en Colombia. Bogotá: Universidad Externado de Colombia, ISBN 9586165558
• (Spanish) Hernández Rodríguez, Guillermo (1949), De los chibchas a la colonia y a la república. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Sección de Extensión Cultural.
• Hylton, Forrest (2006), Evil Hour in Colombia. New York: Verso Books. ISBN 1844675513
• (Spanish) Jaramillo Uribe, Jaime; Tirado Mejía, Álvaro; Calderón Schrader, Camilo (2000), Nueva historia de Colombia (12 volumes). Bogotá: Planeta Colombiana Editorial. ISBN 9586142515 (Complete work)
• Kirk, Robin (2004), More Terrible Than Death: Drugs, Violence, and America's War in Colombia. United States: PublicAffairs. ISBN 1586482076
• (Spanish) Ocampo López, Javier (1999), El proceso ideológico de la emancipación en Colombia. Colección La Línea de Horizonte, Bogotá: Editorial Planeta. ISBN 9586147924
• Ospina, William (2006), Once Upon a Time There Was Colombia. Colombia: Villegas Asociados. ISBN 9588156645
• Palacios, Marco (2006), Between Legitimacy and Violence: A History of Colombia, 1875-2002. United States of America: Duke University Press. ISBN 0822337673
• (Spanish) Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo (1998), Colombia indígena. Medellín: Hola Colina. ISBN 9586382761
• (Spanish) Restrepo, José Manuel (1974), Historia de la revolución de la República de Colombia. Medellín: Editorial Bedout.
• (Spanish) Rivadeneira Vargas, Antonio José (2002), Historia constitucional de Colombia 1510-2000. Third edition, Tunja: Editorial Bolivariana Internacional.
• Simons, Geoff (2004), Colombia: A Brutal History. London: Saqi Books. ISBN 0863567584
• Smith, Stephen (1999), Cocaine Train: Travels in Colombia. London: Little, Brown. ISBN 0316647497
• (Spanish) Tovar Pinzón, Hermes (1975), El movimiento campesino en Colombia durante los siglos XIX y XX. Second edition, Bogotá: Ediciones Libres.
• (Spanish) Trujillo Muñoz Augusto (2001), Descentralización, regionalización y autonomía local. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia.
• (Spanish) Vidal Perdomo Jaime (2001), La Región en la Organización Territorial del Estado. Bogotá: Universidad del Rosario.

External links

Government

• (Spanish) Portal del Estado - Colombia Online Government web site
• (Spanish) Presidencia de la República de Colombia - Official Presidential web site
• (Spanish) Senado de la República de Colombia - Senate
• (Spanish) Cámara de Representantes de Colombia - Chamber of Representatives
• (Spanish) Rama Judicial - Judicial branch
• (Spanish) Policia Nacional - Police
• (Spanish) Ejército Nacional de Colombia - Army
• (Spanish) Armada Nacional de Colombia - Navy
• (Spanish) Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad - Security Service
• (Spanish) Banco de la República - Central Bank
• (Spanish) Ministerio de Comercio, Industria y Turismo - Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Tourism
• (Spanish) Instituto Nacional de Vías - Ministry of Transport
• (Spanish) Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadistica - National Administrative Department of Statistics
• Sistema Nacional de Información Cultural - National System of Cultural Information
• (Spanish) Instituto Geográfico Agustín Codazzi - Maps of Colombia

Other

• Colombia travel guide from Wikitravel
• Encyclopaedia Britannica Colombia Country Page
• Colombia entry at The World Factbook
• Colombia at UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Colombia at the Open Directory Project
• (Spanish) UNICEF - UNICEF in Colombia
• US Colombia Free Trade Promotion Agreement - Congressional Research Service
• US-Colombia Free Trade Deal Costly for Poor People - Oxfam
• A US-Colombia Free Trade Agreement: Strengthening Democracy and Progress in Latin America - Cato Institute
• Breaking the Grip? Obstacles to Justice for Paramilitary Mafias in Colombia - Human Rights Watch

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