Matter

Pie chart showing the fractions of energy in the universe contributed by different sources. Ordinary matter is divided into luminous matter (the stars and luminous gases and 0.005% radiation) and nonluminous matter (intergalactic gas and about 0.1% neutrinos and 0.04% supermassive black holes). Ordinary matter is uncommon. Modeled after Ostriker and Steinhardt [1]. For more information, see NASA.
This article is about the concept in astronomy, physics and chemistry. For other uses, see Matter (disambiguation).

In common usage, matter is anything that has both mass and volume (takes up space). A more rigorous definition is used in science: matter is what atoms and molecules are made of. Matter commonly is said to come in three states (phases); solid, liquid and gas. However additional phases exists such as plasmas and Bose-Einstein condensates.

Matter, in the scientific definition, constitutes about 4% of the energy of the observable universe. The remaining energy is thought to be due to exotic and poorly understood forms, of which 23% is dark matter[2][3] and 73% is dark energy.[4][5]

Contents

Definitions

Common definition

The chemical structure of DNA. Hydrogen bonds are shown as dotted lines.

The common definition of matter is anything that has both mass and volume (occupies space).[6][7] For example, a car would be said to be made of matter, as it occupies space, and has mass.

The observation that matter occupies space goes back to antiquity. However, an explanation for why matter occupies space is recent, and is argued to be a result of the exclusion principle.[8][9] Two particular examples where the exclusion principle clearly relates matter to the occupation of space are white dwarf stars and neutron stars, discussed further below. For a wider discussion, see Pauli exclusion principle.

Scientific definition

An almost unrelated definition of "matter" that is based upon its physical and chemical structure is: matter is what atoms and molecules are made of, meaning anything made of protons, neutrons, and electrons. As an example of matter under this definition, genetic information is carried by a long molecule called DNA, which is copied and inherited across generations. It is matter under this definition because it is made of atoms, not by virtue of having mass or occupying space.

Discussion and background

The common definition in terms of occupying space and having mass is in contrast with most physical and chemical definitions of matter, which rely instead upon its structure and upon attributes not necessarily related to volume and mass. James Clerk Maxwell discussed matter in his work Matter and Motion.[10] He carefully separates "matter" from space and time, and defines it in terms of the object referred to in Newton's first law of motion. In the 19th century, the term "matter" was actively discussed by a host of scientists and philosophers, and a brief outline can be found in Levere.[11] A textbook discussion from 1870 suggests matter is what is made up of atoms:[12]

Three divisions of matter are recognized in science: masses, molecules and atoms.
A Mass of matter is any portion of matter appreciable by the senses.
A Molecule is the smallest particle of matter into which a body can be divided without losing its identity.
An Atom is a still smaller particle produced by division of a molecule.

Rather than simply having the attributes of mass and occupying space, matter was held to have chemical and electrical properties. The famous physicist J. J. Thompson wrote about the "constitution of matter" and was concerned with the possible connection between matter and electrical charge.[13] There is an entire literature concerning the "structure of matter", ranging from the "electrical structure" in the early 20th century[14], to the more recent "quark structure of matter", introduced today with the remark: Understanding the quark structure of matter has been one of the most important advances in contemporary physics.[15] In this connection, physicists speak of matter fields, and speak of particles as "quantum excitations of a mode of the matter field".[16][17] And here is a quote from De Sabbata and Gasperini: "With the word "matter" we denote, in this context, the sources of the interactions, that is spinor fields (like quarks and leptons), which are believed to be the fundamental components of matter, or scalar fields, like the Higgs particles, which are used to introduced mass in a gauge theory (and which, however, could be composed of more fundamental fermion fields)."[18]

The term "matter" is used throughout physics in a bewildering variety of contexts: for example, one refers to "condensed matter physics",[19] "elementary matter",[20] "partonic" matter, "dark" matter, "anti"-matter, "strange" matter, and "nuclear" matter. In discussions of matter and antimatter, normal matter has been referred to by Alfvén as koinomatter.[21] It is fair to say that in physics, there is no broad consensus as to an exact definition of matter, and the term "matter" usually is used in conjunction with some modifier.

Quarks and leptons definition

Under the "quarks and leptons" definition, the elementary and composite particles made of the quarks (in purple) and leptons (in green) would be "matter"; while the gauge bosons (in blue), if isolated, would not be "matter". However, interaction energy inherent to composite particles (for example, gluons involved in neutrons and protons) are included in ordinary matter.

As may be seen from the above discussion, many early definitions of what can be called ordinary matter were based upon its structure or "building blocks". The "scientific definition" stated above follows this tradition. In a more technical version it can be stated as: ordinary matter is everything that is composed of elementary fermions, namely quarks and leptons.[22][23] The connection between these formulations follows.

Leptons (the most famous being the electron), and quarks (of which baryons, such as protons and neutrons, are made) combine to form atoms, which in turn form molecules. Because atoms and molecules are said to be matter, it is natural to phrase the definition as: ordinary matter is anything that is made of the same things that atoms and molecules are made of. Then, because electrons are leptons, and protons and neutrons are made of quarks, this definition in turn leads to the definition of matter as being "quarks and leptons", which are the two elementary types of fermions. Carithers and Grannis state: Ordinary matter is composed entirely of first-generation particles, namely the u [up] and d [down] quarks, plus the electron and its neutrino.[24]

This definition of ordinary matter is more subtle than it first appears. There are two groups of particles. All the particles that make up matter, such as electrons, protons and neutrinos, are fermions. All the force carriers are bosons.[25] See the tabulation in the figure. Some massive particles, such as the W and Z bosons that mediate the weak force, are not made of quarks and leptons, and so in isolation are not ordinary matter. In other words, mass is not something that is exclusive to ordinary matter. The quark-lepton definition of ordinary matter, however, identifies not only the elementary building blocks of matter, but also includes composites made from the constituents (atoms and molecules, for example) and by implication, therefore, the interaction energy that holds the constituents together.

The inclusion of interaction energy implied by the definition of ordinary matter is significant. For example, to a great extent, the mass of an atom is simply the sum of the masses of its constituent protons, neutrons and electrons. However, digging deeper, the protons and neutrons are made up of quarks bound together by gluon fields (see QCD).[26] Basically, much of the mass of hadrons is the interaction energy of bound quarks. Thus, most of what composes the "mass" of ordinary matter is interquark interaction energy.[27] For example, "the gluonic forces binding three quarks to make a nucleon contribute most of its mass of 938 MeV".[28]

A solid metal cup containing liquid nitrogen slowly evaporating into gaseous nitrogen. Evaporation is the phase transition from a liquid state to a gas state.
Phase diagram for a typical substance at a fixed volume. Vertical axis is Pressure, horizontal axis is Temperature. The green line marks the freezing point (above the green line is solid, below it is liquid) and the blue line the boiling point (above it is liquid and below it is gas). So, for example, at higher T, a higher P is necessary to maintain the substance in liquid phase. At the triple point the three phases; liquid, gas and solid; can coexist. Above the critical point there is no detectable difference between the phases. The dotted line shows the anomalous behavior of water: ice melts at constant temperature with increasing pressure.[29]

Phases of ordinary matter

Main article: Phase (matter)
See also: Phase diagram and State of matter

In bulk, matter can exist in several different forms known as phases, depending on ambient pressure, temperature and volume. A phase is a form of matter that has a relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties (such as density, specific heat, refractive index, and so forth). These phases include the three familiar ones (solids, liquids, and gases), as well as more exotic states of matter ( such as plasmas, superfluids, supersolids, Bose-Einstein condensates, ...). There are also paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials. As conditions change, matter may change from one phase into another. These phenomena are called phase transitions, and are studied in the field of thermodynamics. In small quantities, matter can exhibit properties that are entirely different from those of bulk material and may not be well described by any phase (see nanomaterials for more details).

Phases are sometimes called states of matter, but this term can lead to confusion with thermodynamic states. For example, two gases maintained at different pressures are in different thermodynamic states (different pressures), but in the same phase (both are solids).

Solid

Main article: Solid

Solids are characterized by a tendency to retain their structural integrity; if left on their own, they will not spread in the same way gas or liquids would. Many solids, like rocks and concrete, have very high hardness and rigidity and will tend to break or shatter when subject to various forms of stress, but others like steel and paper are more flexible and will bend. Solids are often composed of crystals, glasses, or long chain molecules (e.g. rubber and paper).

Liquid

Main article: Liquid

In a liquid, the molecules are frequently touching, but able to move around each other. So unlike a gas, it has cohesion and viscosity. While unlike a solid, it is not highly rigid.

Gas

Main article: Gas

A gas is a substance composed of small molecules which are spaced far enough apart from each other that they rarely interact and do not impeded each others' motion. Thus a gas has no resistance to changing shape (beyond the inertia of the molecules which have to be knocked aside).

Plasma

Main articles: Plasma (physics) and Astrophysical plasma

A plasma is a state of matter found in stars, lightning, and neon signs. The plasma phase is the most abundant state of matter in the universe.

Bose-Einstein condensate

Main article: Bose–Einstein condensate

This state of matter was first discovered by Satyendra Nath Bose, who sent his work on statistics of photons to Albert Einstein for comment. Following publication of Bose's paper, Einstein extended his treatment to massive particles fixed in number, and predicted this fifth state of matter in 1925. Bose-Einstein condensates were first realized experimentally by several different scientific groups in 1995 for rubidium, sodium, and lithium, using a combination of laser and evaporative cooling.[30] Bose-Einstein condensation for atomic hydrogen was achieved in 1998.[31]

The Bose-Einstein condensate is a liquid-like superfluid that occurs in at low temperatures in which all atoms occupy the same quantum state. In low-density systems, it occurs at or below 10−5 K.[31]

Fermonic condensate

Main article: Fermionic condensate
See also: Superconductor and BCS theory

A fermonic condensate is a superfluid phase formed by fermionic particles at low temperatures. It is closely related to the Bose-Einstein condensate under similar conditions. Unlike the Bose-Einstein condensates, fermionic condensates are formed using fermions instead of bosons. The earliest recognized fermionic condensate described the state of electrons in a superconductor; the physics of other examples including recent work with fermionic atoms is analogous. The first atomic fermionic condensate was created by Deborah S. Jin in 2003.[32] These atomic fermionic condensates are studied at temperatures in the vicinity of 50-350nK.[33] . A chiral condensate is an example of a fermionic condensate that appears in theories of massless fermions with chiral symmetry breaking.

A model of a neutron star's internal structure. (Other models exist.[34]) At a depth of about 10 km the core becomes a superfluid liquid primarily of neutrons. The section at the left shows density vs. radius. Data from Luminet et al.[35]

Core of a neutron star

Main articles: Neutron star and Pulsar
See also: Magnetar

Because of its extreme density, the core of a neutron star falls under no other state of matter. While a white dwarf is about as massive as the sun (up to 1.4 solar masses, the Chandrasekhar limit), the Pauli exclusion principle prevents its collapse to smaller radius, and it becomes an example of degenerate matter. In contrast, neutron stars are between 1.5 and 3 solar masses, and achieve such density that the protons and electrons are crushed to become neutrons. Neutrons are fermions, so further collapse is prevented by the exclusion principle, forming so-called neutron degenerate matter.[36] [37]

Relativistic gold ions collide to make a hadronic fireball; frame from animation by Brookhaven National Laboratory

Quark-gluon plasma

Main articles: Quark-gluon plasma and QCD matter
See also: Gluon and Hadron

Gluons are elementary particles that cause quarks to interact, and are indirectly responsible for the binding of protons and neutrons together in atomic nuclei. The quark-gluon plasma is a hypothetical phase of matter, a phase of matter as yet not observed, supposed to exist in the early universe and to have evolved into a hadronic-gas phase. At extremely high energy the strong force is anticipated to become so weak that the atomic nuclei break down into a bunch of loose quarks, which distinguishes the quark-gluon phase from normal plasma. In collisions of relativistic heavy ions, it is hoped to observe a phase transition from the nuclear, hadronic phase to a matter phase consisting of quarks and gluons. So far, experimental results have shown that such collisions form a dense hadronic fireball of high energy density well localized in space.[38] An animation is found at Gold ion collision @ RHIC.

Structure of ordinary matter

In particle physics, fermions are particles which obey Fermi–Dirac statistics. Fermions can be elementary, like the electron, or composite, like the proton and the neutron. In the Standard Model there are two types of elementary fermions: quarks and leptons, which are discussed next.

Quarks

Main article: Quark

Quarks are a particles of spin-1⁄2, meaning that they are fermions. They carry an electric charge of −1⁄3 e (down-type quarks) or +2⁄3 e (up-type quarks). For comparison, an electron has a charge of −1 e. They also carry colour charge, which is the equivalent of the electric charge for the strong interaction. Quarks also undergo radioactive decay, meaning that they are subject to the weak interaction. Quarks are massive particles, and therefore are also subject to gravity.

Quark properties[39]
Name Symbol Spin Electric charge
(e)		 Mass
(MeV/c2)		 Mass comparable to Antiparticle Antiparticle
symbol
Up-type quarks
Up u 1⁄2 +2⁄3 1.5 to 3.3 ~ 5 electrons Antiup u
Charm c 1⁄2 +2⁄3 1160 to 1340 ~ 1 proton Anticharm c
Top t 1⁄2 +2⁄3 169,100 to 173,300 ~ 180 protons or
~ 1 tungsten atom		 Antitop t
Down-type quarks
Down d 1⁄2 −1⁄3 3.5 to 6.0 ~ 10 electrons Antidown d
Strange s 1⁄2 −1⁄3 70 to 130 ~ 200 electrons Antistrange s
Bottom b 1⁄2 −1⁄3 4130 to 4370 ~ 5 protons Antibottom b
Quark structure of a proton: 2 up quarks and 1 down quark.

Baryonic matter

Main article: Baryon

Baryons are strongly interacting fermions, and so are subject to Fermi-Dirac statistics. Amongst the baryons are the protons and neutrons, which occur in atomic nuclei, but many other unstable baryons exist as well. The term baryon is usually used to refer to triquarks — particles made of three quarks. "Exotic" baryons made of four quarks and one antiquark are known as the pentaquarks, but their existence is not generally accepted.

Baryonic matter is the part of the universe that is made of baryons (including all atoms). This part of the universe does not include dark energy, dark matter, black holes or various forms of degenerate matter, such as compose white dwarf stars and neutron stars. Microwave light seen by Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), suggests that only about 4.6% of that part of the universe within range of the best telescopes (that is, matter that may be visible because light could reach us from it), is made of baryionic matter. About 23% is dark matter, and about 72% is dark energy.[40]

A comparison between the white dwarf IK Pegasi B (center), its A-class companion IK Pegasi A (left) and the Sun (right). This white dwarf has a surface temperature of 35,500 K.

Degenerate matter

Main article: Degenerate matter

In physics, degenerate matter refers to the ground state of a gas of fermions at a temperature near absolute zero.[41] The Pauli exclusion principle requires that only two fermions can occupy a quantum state, one spin-up and the other spin-down. Hence, at zero temperature, the fermions fill up sufficient levels to accommodate all the available fermions, and for the case of many fermions the maximum kinetic energy called the Fermi energy and the pressure of the gas becomes very large and dependent upon the number of fermions rather than the temperature, unlike normal states of matter.

Degenerate matter is thought to occur during the evolution of heavy stars.[42] The demonstration by Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar that white dwarf stars have a maximum allowed mass because of the exclusion principle caused a revolution in the theory of star evolution.[43]

Degenerate matter includes the part of the universe that is made up of neutron stars and white dwarfs.

Leptons

Main article: Lepton

Leptons are a particles of spin-1⁄2, meaning that they are fermions. They carry an electric charge of −1 e (electron-like leptons) or 0 e (neutrinos). Unlike quarks, leptons do not carry colour charge, meaning that they do not experience the strong interaction. Leptons also undergo radioactive decay, meaning that they are subject to the weak interaction. Leptons are massive particles, therefore are subject to gravity.

Lepton properties
Name Symbol Spin Electric charge
(e)		 Mass
(MeV/c2)		 Mass comparable to Antiparticle Antiparticle
symbol
Electron-like leptons[44]
Electron e− 1⁄2 −1 0.5110 1 electron Antielectron
(positron)		 e+
Muon μ− 1⁄2 −1 105.7 ~ 200 electrons Antimuon μ+
Tauon τ− 1⁄2 −1 1,777 ~ 2 protons Antitauon τ+
Neutrinos[45]
Electron neutrino νe 1⁄2 0 < 0.000460 Less than a thousandth of an electron Electron antineutrino νe
Muon neutrino νμ 1⁄2 0 < 0.19 Less than half of an electron Muon antineutrino νμ
Tauon neutrino
(or tau neutrino)		 ντ 1⁄2 0 < 18.2 Less than ~ 40 electrons Tauon antineutrino
(or tau antineutrino)		 ντ

Other types of matter

Antimatter

Main article: Antimatter

In particle physics and quantum chemistry, antimatter is matter that is composed of the antiparticles of those that constitute normal matter. If a particle and its antiparticle come into contact with each other, the two annihilate; that is, they may both be converted into other particles with equal energy in accordance with Einstein's equation E = mc2. These new particles may be high-energy photons (gamma rays) or other particle–antiparticle pairs. The resulting particles are endowed with an amount of kinetic energy equal to the difference between the rest mass of the products of the annihilation and the rest mass of the original particle-antiparticle pair, which is often quite large.

Antimatter is not found naturally on Earth, except very briefly and in vanishingly small quantities (as the result of radioactive decay or cosmic rays). This is because antimatter which came to exist on Earth outside the confines of a suitable physics laboratory would almost instantly meet the ordinary matter that Earth is made of, and be annihilated. Antiparticles and some stable antimatter (such as antihydrogen) can be made in tiny amounts, but not in enough quantity to do more than test a few of its theoretical properties.

There is considerable speculation both in science and science fiction as to why the observable universe is apparently almost entirely matter, whether other places are almost entirely antimatter instead, and what might be possible if antimatter could be harnessed, but at this time the apparent asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the great unsolved problems in physics. Possible processes by which it came about are explored in more detail under baryogenesis.

Dark matter

Main articles: Dark matter, Lambda-CDM model, and WIMPs
See also: Galaxy formation and evolution and Dark matter halo

In astrophysics and cosmology, dark matter is matter of unknown composition that does not emit or reflect enough electromagnetic radiation to be observed directly, but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter. Observational evidence of the early universe and the big bang theory require that this matter have energy and mass, but is not composed of either elementary fermions (as above) OR gauge bosons. As such, it is composed of particles as yet unobserved in the laboratory (perhaps supersymmetric particles).

Dark energy

Main article: Dark energy
See also: Big bang#Dark energy

In cosmology, dark energy is the name given to the antigravitating influence that is accelerating the rate of expansion of the universe. It is known not to be composed of known particles like protons, neutrons or electrons, nor of the particles of dark matter, because these all gravitate.[46][47]

Fully 70% of the matter density in the universe appears to be in the form of dark energy. Twenty-six percent is dark matter. Only 4% is ordinary matter. So less than 1 part in 20 is made out of matter we have observed experimentally or described in the standard model of particle physics. Of the other 96%, apart from the properties just mentioned, we know absolutely nothing.

– Lee Smolin: The Trouble with Physics, p. 16

Exotic matter

Main article: Exotic matter

Exotic matter is a hypothetical concept of particle physics. It covers any material which violates one or more classical conditions or is not made of known baryonic particles. Such materials would possess qualities like negative mass or being repelled rather than attracted by gravity.

References

  1. ↑ Jeremiah P. Ostriker and Paul Steinhardt New Light on Dark Matter
  2. ↑ K Pretzl (2004). "Dark Matter, Massive Neutrinos and Susy Particles". Structure and Dynamics of Elementary Matter (Walter Greiner ed.). p. 289. ISBN 1402024460. http://books.google.com/books?id=lokz2n-9gX0C&pg=PA289&dq=matter+%22massive+particles%22&lr=&as_brr=0. 
  3. ↑ Ken Freeman, Geoff McNamara (2006). "What can the matter be?". In Search of Dark Matter. Birkhäuser. p. 105. ISBN 0387276165. http://books.google.com/books?id=C2OS1kmQ8JIC&pg=PA45&dq=isbn:0387276165#PPA105,M1. 
  4. ↑ J. Craig Wheeler (2007). Cosmic Catastrophes: Exploding Stars, Black Holes, and Mapping the Universe. Cambridge University Press. p. 282. ISBN 0521857147. http://books.google.com/books?id=j1ej8d0F8jAC&pg=PA282&dq=%22dark+energy%22+date:2002-2009&lr=&as_brr=0. 
  5. ↑ John Gribbin (2007). The Origins of the Future: Ten Questions for the Next Ten Years. Yale University Press. p. 151. ISBN 0300125968. http://books.google.com/books?id=f6AYrZYGig8C&pg=PA151&dq=%22dark+energy%22+date:2002-2009&lr=&as_brr=0. 
  6. ↑ Sally M Walker & Andy King (2005). What is Matter?. Lerner Publications. p. 7. ISBN 0822551314. http://books.google.com/books?id=o7EquxOl4MAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=matter&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA7,M1. 
  7. ↑ John Kenkel, Paul B. Kelter, David S. Hage (2000). Chemistry: An Industry-based Introduction with CD-ROM. CRC Press. p. 2. ISBN 1566703034. http://books.google.com/books?id=ADSjPRl_tgoC&pg=PA1&dq=matter+chemistry+properties&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA2,M1. "All basic science textbooks define matter as simply the collective aggregate of all material substances that occupy space and have mass or weight". 
  8. ↑ Kent A. Peacock (2008). The Quantum Revolution: A Historical Perspective. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 47. ISBN 031333448X. http://books.google.com/books?id=ITqnf5jdE5QC&pg=PA47&dq=%22prevents+matter+from+collapsing%22&lr=&as_brr=0. 
  9. ↑ Martin H. Krieger (1998). Constitutions of Matter: Mathematically Modeling the Most Everyday of Physical Phenomena. University of Chicago Press. p. 22. ISBN 0226453057. http://books.google.com/books?id=VduHhkzl-aQC&pg=PA22&dq=%22does+not+collapse+into+itself%22&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA22,M1. 
  10. ↑ James Clerk Maxwell (1876). Matter and Motion. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. p. 18. http://books.google.com/books?id=MWoOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=matter&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA18,M1. 
  11. ↑ Trevor Harvey Levere (1993). "Introduction". Affinity and Matter: Elements of Chemical Philosophy, 1800-1865. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 2881245838. http://books.google.com/books?id=gKSDWsE8fZMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=matter&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA11,M1. 
  12. ↑ George Frederick Barker (1870). A Text Book of Elementary Chemistry: Theoretical and Inorganic. John P. Morton and Company. p. 2. http://books.google.com/books?id=B6Yz6eW-5joC. 
  13. ↑ Joseph John Thomson (1909). "Preface". Electricity and Matter. A. Constable. http://books.google.com/books?id=2AaToepvKoEC&printsec=titlepage#PPP13,M1. 
  14. ↑ Owen Willans Richardson (1914). "Chapter 1". The Electron Theory of Matter. The University Press. http://books.google.com/books?id=RpdDAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=matter&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA1,M1. 
  15. ↑ Maurice Jacob (1992). The Quark Structure of Matter: proceedings of a topical European meeting in the Rhine Valley : Strasbourgh-Karlsruhe, 26 September-1 October 1985. World Scientific. ISBN 9810236875. http://books.google.com/books?id=iQ1e2a9bPikC&printsec=frontcover&dq=matter&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA1,M1. 
  16. ↑ P. C. W. Davies (1979). The Forces of Nature. Cambridge University Press. p. 116. ISBN 052122523X. http://books.google.com/books?id=Av08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA116&dq=%22matter+field%22&lr=&as_brr=0. 
  17. ↑ Steven Weinberg (1998). The Quantum Theory of Fields. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 0521550025. http://books.google.com/books?id=2oPZJJerMLsC&pg=PA5&dq=Weinberg+%22matter+field%22&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA5,M1. 
  18. ↑ Venzo De Sabbata, Maurizio Gasperini (1985). Introduction to Gravitation. World Scientific. p. 293. ISBN 9971500493. http://books.google.com/books?id=7sJ6m8s0_ccC&pg=PA293&dq=Weinberg+%22matter+field%22&lr=&as_brr=0. 
  19. ↑ P. M. Chaikin, T. C. Lubensky (2000). Principles of Condensed Matter Physics. Cambridge University Press. p. xvii. ISBN 0521794501. http://books.google.com/books?id=P9YjNjzr9OIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=matter&lr=&as_brr=0#PPR17,M1. 
  20. ↑ Walter Greiner, Mikhail G. Itkis (2003). Structure and Dynamics of Elementary Matter: Proceedings of the NATO Asi on Structure and Dynamics of Elementary Matter, Camyuva-Kemer (Antalya), Turkey, from 22 September to 2 October 2003. Springer. ISBN 1402024452. http://books.google.com/books?id=ORyJzhAzpUgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=matter&lr=&as_brr=0#PPR12,M1. 
  21. ↑ Paul Sukys (1999). Lifting the Scientific Veil: Science Appreciation for the Nonscientist. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 87. ISBN 0-847-69600-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=WEM4hqxJ-xYC&pg=PR23&dq=isbn:0847696006#PPA87,M1. 
  22. ↑ Bogdan Povh, Klaus Rith, Christoph Scholz, Frank Zetsche, M. Lavelle (2004). "Part I: Analysis: The building blocks of matter". Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts (4rth ed.). Springer. ISBN 3540201688. http://books.google.com/books?id=rJe4k8tkq7sC&pg=PA9&dq=povh+%22building+blocks+of+matter%22&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA2,M1. 
  23. ↑ B. Carithers, P Grannis (1995). "Discovery of the Top Quark". Beam Line (SLAC) 25 (3): 4–16. http://www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/beamline/pdf/95iii.pdf. 
  24. ↑ See p. 7 in B. Carithers, P Grannis (1995). "Discovery of the Top Quark". Beam Line (SLAC) 25 (3): 4-16. http://www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/beamline/pdf/95iii.pdf. 
  25. ↑ Lee Smolin (2007). The Trouble with Physics: The Rise of String Theory, the Fall of a Science, and What Comes Next. Mariner Books. p. 67. ISBN 061891868X. http://books.google.com/books?id=z5rxrnlcp3sC&pg=PA67&dq=%22all+the+particles+that+make+up+matter%22&lr=&as_brr=0. 
  26. ↑ I.J.R. Aitchison, A.J.G. Hey (2004). Gauge Theories in Particle Physics. CRC Press. p. 48. ISBN 0750308648. http://books.google.com/books?id=vLP7XN2pWlEC&pg=PA48&dq=%22source+particles+of+the+gluon+fields%22&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA48,M1. 
  27. ↑ Bogdan Povh, Klaus Rith, Christoph Scholz, Frank Zetsche, M. Lavelle. op. cit.. p. 103. ISBN 3540201688. http://books.google.com/books?id=rJe4k8tkq7sC&pg=PA103&dq=%22interquark+interaction+energy%22&lr=&as_brr=0. 
  28. ↑ Anthony M. Green (2004). Hadronic Physics from Lattice QCD. World Scientific. p. 120. ISBN 981256022X. http://books.google.com/books?id=XUGVOJKHgKAC&pg=PA120&dq=%22gluonic+forces+binding%22&lr=&as_brr=0. 
  29. ↑ S. R. Logan (1998). Physical Chemistry for the Biomedical Sciences. CRC Press. pp. 110-111. ISBN 0748407103. http://books.google.com/books?id=LA_8QzoCNMsC&pg=PA110&dq=water+%22phase++diagram%22&lr=&as_brr=0. 
  30. ↑ Gordon Fraser (2006). The New Physics for the Twenty-first Century. Cambridge University Press. p. 238. ISBN 0521816009. http://books.google.com/books?id=0idvEIXwfxsC&pg=PA238&dq=%22Bose-Einstein+condensate%22&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA238,M1. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Christopher Pethick, Henrik Smith (2002). "Introduction". Bose-Einstein Condensation in Dilute Gases. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521665809. http://books.google.com/books?id=K_KPhpTTmkEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Bose-Einstein+condensate%22&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA1,M1. 
  32. ↑ Markus Greiner, Cindy A. Regal, and Deborah S. Jin A molecular Bose-Einstein condensate emerges from a Fermi sea
  33. ↑ MW Zwierlein et al. (2006) Direct Observation of the Superfluid Phase Transition in Ultracold Fermi Gases
  34. ↑ Paweł Haensel, A Y Potekhin, Aleksandr Ûrevič Potehin, D G Yakovlev (2007). Neutron Stars. Springer. p. 11. ISBN 0387335439. http://books.google.com/books?id=iIrj9nfHnesC&pg=PA52&dq=neutron+star+crystalline+mantle&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA11,M1. 
  35. ↑ Jean-Pierre Luminet, Alison Bullough, Andrew King (1992). Black Holes. Cambridge University Press. p. 111, Figure 25. ISBN 0521409063. http://books.google.com/books?id=WRexJODPq5AC&pg=PA55&dq=isbn:0521409063&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA111,M1. 
  36. ↑ Dennis Richard Danielson (2001). The Book of the Cosmos. Da Capo Press. p. 455. ISBN 0738204986. http://books.google.com/books?id=zwIN_-rqrL4C&pg=PA453&dq=exclusion+principle+%22neutron+star%22&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA455,M1. 
  37. ↑ Mark A Strain (2004). Cosmic Entity. self-published by iUniverse. p. 50. ISBN 0595301258. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ic7YLrm0xvAC&pg=PA50&dq=matter+%22exclusion+principle%22&lr=&as_brr=0. 
  38. ↑ Jean Letessier, Johann Rafelski (2002). "A New Phase of Matter?". Hadrons and Quark-gluon Plasma. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521385369. http://books.google.com/books?id=vSnFPyQaSTsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22gluon+plasma%22&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA8,M1. 
  39. ↑ C. Amsler et al. (Particle Data Group), PL B667, 1 (2008) (URL: http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/tables/rpp2008-sum-quarks.pdf)
  40. ↑ "Five Year Results on the Oldest Light in the Universe". NASA (2008). Retrieved on May 2, 2008.
  41. ↑ Howard S. Goldberg, Michael D. Scadron (1987). Physics of stellar evolution and cosmology. Taylor & Francis. p. 202. ISBN 0677055404. http://books.google.com/books?id=NowVde8kzIoC&pg=PA207&dq=matter+%22exclusion+principle%22&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA202,M1. 
  42. ↑ Howard S. Goldberg, Michael D. Scadron. op. cit.. p. 233. ISBN 0677055404. http://books.google.com/books?id=NowVde8kzIoC&pg=PA207&dq=matter+%22exclusion+principle%22&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA233,M1. 
  43. ↑ Jean-Pierre Luminet, Alison Bullough, Andrew King (1992). Black Holes. Cambridge University Press. p. 75. ISBN 0521409063. http://books.google.com/books?id=WRexJODPq5AC&pg=PA72&dq=matter+%22exclusion+principle%22&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA75,M1. 
  44. ↑ C. Amsler et al. (Particle Data Group), PL B667, 1 (2008) (URL: http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/tables/rpp2008-sum-leptons.pdf)
  45. ↑ C. Amsler et al. (Particle Data Group), PL B667, 1 (2008) (URL: http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/s066.pdf)
  46. ↑ J. Craig Wheeler (2007). Cosmic Catastrophes. Cambridge University Press. p. 282. ISBN 0521857147. http://books.google.com/books?id=j1ej8d0F8jAC&pg=PA282&dq=%22dark+energy%22&lr=&as_brr=0. 
  47. ↑ Lee Smolin (2007). op. cit.. p. 16. ISBN 061891868X. http://books.google.com/books?id=z5rxrnlcp3sC&pg=PA67&dq=%22all+the+particles+that+make+up+matter%22&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA16,M1. 

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