Buckwheat

This article is about the food crop. For the Our Gang/Little Rascals character, see Billie "Buckwheat" Thomas.
Common Buckwheat
Illustration Fagopyrum esculentum0.jpg
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Caryophyllales
Family: Polygonaceae
Genus: Fagopyrum
Species: F. esculentum
Binomial name
Fagopyrum esculentum
Moench
Buckwheat output in 2006

Buckwheat refers to plants in two genera of the dicot family Polygonaceae: the Eurasian genus Fagopyrum, and the North American genus Eriogonum. The crop plant, common buckwheat, is Fagopyrum esculentum. Tartary buckwheat (F. tataricum Gaertn.) or "bitter buckwheat" is also used as a crop, but it is much less common. Despite the common name and the grain-like use of the crop, buckwheats are not grasses (and are therefore considered pseudocereals) and are not related to wheat nor other monocots.

The agricultural weed known as Wild Buckwheat (Fallopia convolvulus) is in the same family, but not closely related to the crop species. Within Fagopyrum, the cultivated species are in the cymosum group, with F. cymosum L. (perennial buckwheat), F. giganteum and F. homotropicum.[1] The wild ancestor of common buckwheat is F. esculentum ssp.ancestrale. F. homotropicum is interfertile with F. esculentum and the wild forms have a common distribution, in Yunnan. The wild ancestor of tartary buckwheat is F. tataricum ssp. potanini.[2]

Contents

Etymology

The name "buckwheat" or "beech wheat" comes from its triangular seeds, which resemble the much larger seeds of the beech nut from the beech tree, and the fact that it is used like wheat. The etymology of the word is explained as partial translation of Middle Dutch boecweite : boek, beech; see PIE bhago- + weite, wheat.

Cultivation

Common buckwheat was domesticated and first cultivated in southeast Asia, possibly around 6000 BC, and from there spread to Europe and to Central Asia and Tibet. Domestication most likely took place in the western Yunnan region of China.[3] Buckwheat is documented in Europe in the Balkans by at least the Middle Neolithic (circa 4000 BC) and the oldest known remains in China so far date to circa 2600 BC, and buckwheat pollen has been found in Japan from as early as 4000 BC. It is the world's highest elevation domesticate, being cultivated in Yunnan on the edge of the Tibetan Plateau or on the Plateau itself. Buckwheat was one of the earliest crops introduced by Europeans to North America. Dispersal around the globe was complete by 2006, when a variety developed in Canada was widely planted in China.

Common Buckwheat in flower

Buckwheat is a short season crop that does well on low-fertility or acidic soils, but the soil must be well drained. Too much fertilizer, especially nitrogen, will reduce yields. In hot climates, it can only be grown by sowing late in the season, so that it will bloom in cooler weather. The presence of pollinators greatly increases the yield. The nectar from buckwheat flower makes a dark colored honey. Buckwheat is sometimes used as a green manure, as a plant for erosion control, or as wildlife cover and feed.

Common buckwheat is by far the most important buckwheat species, economically, accounting for over 90% of the world's buckwheat production. A century ago, Russia was the world leader in buckwheat production.[4] Growing areas in the Russian Empire were estimated at 6.5 million acres (26,000 km²), followed by those of France (0.9 million acres; 3,500 km²).[5] In 1970 the Soviet Union grew an estimated 4.5 million acres (18,000 km²) of buckwheat. Today China is the world's top producer. Japan, Poland, Canada, Brazil, South Africa, and Australia also grow significant quantities of buckwheat.

In the northeastern United States, buckwheat was a common crop in the 18th and 19th centuries. Cultivation declined sharply in the 20th century due the use of nitrogen fertilizer, to which maize and wheat respond strongly. Over a million acres (4,000 km²) were harvested in the United States in 1918. By 1954 that had declined to 150,000 acres (600 km²), and by 1964, the last year that production statistics were gathered, only 50,000 acres (200 km²) were grown.

Chemical composition

Seeds Starch 71–78% in groats

70–91% in different types of flour.[6][7][8]
Starch is 25% amylose and 75% amylopectin.
Depending on hydrothermal treatment buckwheat groats contain 7–37% of resistant starch.
  Proteins 18% with biological values above 90%.[9]

This can be explained by a high concentration of all essential amino acids[10], especially lysine, threonine, tryptophan, and the sulphur-containing amino acids.[11]
  Minerals Rich in iron (60–100 ppm), zinc (20–30 ppm) and selenium (20–50 ppb).[12][13]
  Antioxidants 10–200 ppm of rutin and 0.1–2% of tannins[14]
  Aromatic compounds Salicylaldehyde (2-hydroxybenzaldehyde) was identified as a characteristic component of buckwheat aroma[15]. 2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, phenylacetaldehyde, 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, (E)-2-nonenal, decanal and hexanal also contribute to its aroma. They all have odour activity value more than 50, but aroma of these substances in isolated state does not resemble buckwheat[16].
Herb Antioxidants 1–10% rutin and 1–10% tannins[17]
  Fagopyrin

Use

Hulled buckwheat
Soba noodles, made from buckwheat flour
Naengmyeon, Korean cold noodle soup made with buckwheat flour

The fruit is an achene, similar to sunflower seed, with a single seed inside a hard outer hull. The starchy endosperm is white and makes up most or all of buckwheat flour. The seed coat is green or tan, which darkens buckwheat flour. The hull is dark brown or black, and some may be included in buckwheat flour as dark specks. The dark flour is known (exaggeratedly) as "blé noir" ("black wheat") in French, along with the name sarrazin ("saracen").

Buckwheat noodles play a major role in the cuisines of Japan (soba), Korea[18] (naengmyeon, makguksu and memil guksu) and the Valtellina region of Northern Italy (pizzoccheri). Soba noodles are the subject of deep cultural importance in Japan. In Korea, guksu (noodles) were widely made from buckwheat before it was replaced by wheat. The difficulty of making noodles from flour that has no gluten has resulted in a traditional art developed around their manufacture by hand.

Buckwheat groats are commonly used in western Asia and eastern Europe. The porridge was common, and is often considered the definitive peasant dish. It is made from roasted groats that are cooked with broth to a texture similar to rice or bulgur. The dish was brought to America by Russian and Polish Jewish immigrants who called it "kasha" and mixed it with pasta or used it as a filling for knishes and blintzes, and hence buckwheat groats are most commonly called kasha in America. Groats were the most widely used form of buckwheat worldwide during the 20th century, with consumption primarily in Russia, Ukraine and Poland.

Buckwheat pancakes, sometimes raised with yeast, are eaten in several countries. They are known as buckwheat blinis in Russia, galettes in France (savoury crêpes which are especially associated with Brittany), ployes in Acadia and boûketes (that is, named the same as the plant they are made of) in Wallonia. Similar pancakes were a common food in American pioneer days. They are light and foamy. The buckwheat flour gives them an earthy, mildly mushroom-like taste. In Ukraine, yeast rolls called hrechanyky are made from buckwheat.

Farina made from groats are used for breakfast food, porridge, and thickening materials in soups, gravies, and dressings. In Korea, buckwheat starch is used to make a jelly called memilmuk. It is also used with wheat, maize or rice in bread and pasta products.

Buckwheat contains no gluten, and can thus be eaten by people with coeliac disease or gluten allergies. Many bread-like preparations have been developed.

Buckwheat is a good honey plant, producing a dark, strong monofloral honey.

Buckwheat greens can be eaten. However, if consumed in sufficient quantities, the greens, or, more commonly, their juice, can induce sensitization of the skin to sunlight known as fagopyrism.[19] Fair skinned people are particularly susceptible, as are light pigmented livestock. Enthusiasts of sprouting, however, eat the very young buckwheat sprouts (four to five days of growth) for their subtle, nutty flavour and high nutritional value. They are widely available in Japan.

Medicinal uses

Buckwheat contains rutin, a medicinal chemical that strengthens capillary walls, reducing hemorrhaging in people with high blood pressure and increasing microcirculation in people with chronic venous insufficiency.[20] Dried buckwheat leaves for tea were manufactured in Europe under the brand name "Fagorutin."

Buckwheat contains D-chiro-inositol, a component of the secondary messenger pathway for insulin signal transduction found to be deficient in Type II diabetes and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS). It is being studied for use in treating Type II diabetes.[21] Research on D-chiro-inositol and PCOS has shown promising results.[22][23]

A buckwheat protein has been found to bind cholesterol tightly. It is being studied for reducing plasma cholesterol in people with an excess of this compound.[24]

Upholstery filling

Buckwheat hulls are used as filling for a variety of upholstered goods, including pillows and zafu. The hulls are durable and do not conduct or reflect heat as much as synthetic fills. They are sometimes marketed as an alternative natural fill to feathers for those with allergies.

Medical studies to measure the health effects of buckwheat hull pillows have been performed. With the conclusion that buckwheat pillows do emit a potential allergen that may trigger asthma in susceptible individuals [25][26]

Buckwheat and beer

In recent years, buckwheat has been used as a substitute for other grain in gluten free beer. Buckwheat is used in the same way as barley to produce a malt that can form the basis of a mash that will brew a beer without gliadin or hordein (together gluten) and therefore can be suitable for coeliacs or others sensitive to certain glycoproteins.[27]

Festivals

The buckwheat plant is celebrated in Kingwood, West Virginia at their Buckwheat Festival where people can participate in swine, cow, and sheep judging contests, vegetable contests, and craft fairs. The area fire departments also play an important role in the series of parades that occur there. Each year there is a King and Lady Fireman elected. Also there are many rides and homemade, homegrown buckwheat cakes and sausage.

In Hinduism, people eat items made of buckwheat flour in the fasting days. There are many great recipes available varying all over India. People in Rajasthan and Maharashtra call this KUTTU KA ATTA.

Raw Foods

Main article: Raw foodism

Buckwheat is also a common ingredient in many raw food dishes. It is easily sprouted and can be dehydrated for later or sprinkled on salads and other dishes.

Recipes

Notes

  1. ↑ T. Sharma, S. Jana (2002). "Species relationships in Fagopyrum revealed by PCR-based DNA fingerprinting". Theoretical and Applied Genetics 105: 306–312. doi:10.1007/s00122-002-0938-9. 
  2. ↑ Ohnishi, O., Matsuoka, Y. (1996). "Search for the wild ancestor of buckwheat II. Taxonomy of Fagopyrum (Polygonaceae) species based on morphology, isozymes and cpDNA variability". Genes and Genetic Systems 71: 383–390. doi:10.1266/ggs.71.383. 
  3. ↑ Ohnishi, O (1998). "Search for the wild ancestor of buckwheat III. The wild ancestor of cultivated common buckwheat, and of tatary buckwheat". Economic Botany 52: 123–133. 
  4. ↑ William Pokhlyobkin. "The Plight of Russian Buckwheat". (Russian) Title in Russian: Тяжёлая судьба русской гречихи
  5. ↑ J. R. N. Taylor, P. S. Belton (2002). Pseudocereals and Less Common Cereals. Springer. p. 125. ISBN 3540429395. 
  6. ↑ Skrabanja V, Kreft I, Golob T, Modic M, Ikeda S, Ikeda K, Kreft S, Bonafaccia G, Knapp M, Kosmelj K. (2004). "Nutrient content in buckwheat milling fractions". Cereal Chemistry 81 (2): 172–176. doi:10.1094/CCHEM.2004.81.2.172. 
  7. ↑ Skrabanja V, Laerke HN, Kreft I (September 1998). "Effects of hydrothermal processing of buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) groats on starch enzymatic availability in vitro and in vivo in rats". Journal of Cereal Science 28 (2): 209–214. doi:10.1006/jcrs.1998.0200. 
  8. ↑ Skrabanja V, Elmstahl HGML, Kreft I, Bjorck IME (January 2001). "Nutritional properties of starch in buckwheat products: Studies in vitro and in vivo". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 49 (1): 490–496. doi:10.1021/jf000779w. 
  9. ↑ Eggum BO, Kreft I, Javornik B (1980). "Chemical-Composition and Protein-Quality of Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench)". Qualitas Plantarum-Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 30 (3-4): 175–179. doi:10.1007/BF01094020. 
  10. ↑ Buckwheat Profile
  11. ↑ Bonafaccia G, Marocchini M, Kreft I (2003). "Composition and technological properties of the flour and bran from common and tartary buckwheat". Food Chemistry 80 (1): 9–15. doi:10.1016/S0308-8146(02)00228-5. 
  12. ↑ S. Ikeda, Y. Yamashita and I. Kreft (2000). "Essential mineral composition of buckwheat flour fractions". Fagopyrum 17: 57–61. 
  13. ↑ Bonafaccia, L. Gambelli, N. Fabjan and I. Kreft (October 2003). "Trace elements in flour and bran from common and tartary buckwheat". Food Chemistry 83 (1): 1–5. doi:10.1016/S0308-8146(03)00228-0. 
  14. ↑ Kreft S, Knapp M, Kreft I (November 1999). "Extraction of rutin from buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) seeds and determination by capillary electrophoresis". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 47 (11): 4649–4652. doi:10.1021/jf990186p. 
  15. ↑ Janes D, Kreft S (2008). "Salicylaldehyde is a characteristic aroma component of buckwheat groats". Food Chemistry 109 (2): 293–298. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.12.032. 
  16. ↑ Janes D, Kantar D, Kreft S, Prosen H (1. January 2009). "Identification of buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) aroma compounds with GC-MS". Food Chemistry 112 (1): 120-124. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.05.048. 
  17. ↑ Kreft S, Strukelj B, Gaberscik A, Kreft I (August 2002). "Rutin in buckwheat herbs grown at different UV-B radiation levels: comparison of two UV spectrophotometric and an HPLC method". J Exp Bot 53 (375): 1801–4. doi:10.1093/jxb/erf032. PMID 12147730. 
  18. ↑ P. S. Belton; John Reginald Nuttall Taylor (2002). "4. Buckwheat". Pseudocereals and Less Common Cereals. Springer. ISBN 3540429395. 
  19. ↑ Gilles Arbour (December 2004). "Are Buckwheat Greens Toxic?" (PDF). Townsend Letter for Doctors & Patients. Retrieved on 2004-06-15.
  20. ↑ Ihme, N.; H. Kiesewetter, F. Jung, K. H. Hoffmann, A. Birk, A. Müller, K. I. Grützner (1996-07-12). "Leg oedema protection from a buckwheat herb tea in patients with chronic venous insufficiency: a single-centre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial". Eur J Clin Pharmacol 50 (6): 443-447. doi:10.1007/s002280050138. PMID 8858269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002280050138. Retrieved on 2008-11-10. 
  21. ↑ Kawa, J.M., Taylor, C.G., Przybylski, R. (1996). "Buckwheat Concentrate Reduces Serum Glucose in Streptozotocin-Diabetic Rats". J. Agric. Food Chem 50: 443–447. 
  22. ↑ Nestler JE, Jakubowicz DJ, Reamer P, Gunn RD, Allan G (1999). "Ovulatory and metabolic effects of D-chiro-inositol in the polycystic ovary syndrome". N. Engl. J. Med. 340 (17): 1314–20. doi:10.1056/NEJM199904293401703. PMID 10219066. 
  23. ↑ Iuorno MJ, Jakubowicz DJ, Baillargeon JP, et al (2002). "Effects of d-chiro-inositol in lean women with the polycystic ovary syndrome". Endocrine practice 8 (6): 417–23. PMID 15251831. 
  24. ↑ H. Tomotake, I. Shimaoka, J. Kayashita, F. Yokoyama, M. Nakajoh and N. Kato. (2001). "Stronger suppression of plasma cholesterol and enhancement of the fecal excretion of steroids by a buckwheat protein product than by a soy protein isolate in rats fed on a cholesterol-free diet.". Bioscience Biotechnology and Biochemistry 65: 1412–1414. doi:10.1271/bbb.65.1412. 
  25. ↑ Chein Soo Hong, Hae Sim Park and Seung Heon Oh (December 1987). "Dermatophagoides Farinae, an Important Allergenic Substance in Buckwheat-Husk Pillows". Yonsei Medical Journal 28 (4): 274–281. http://www.eymj.org/1987/pdf/274.pdf. 
  26. ↑ Hae-Seon Nam, Choon-Sik Park, Julian Crane, Rob Siebers (2004). "Endotoxin and House Dust Mite Allergen Levels on Synthetic and Buckwheat Pillows". Journal of Korean Medical Science 19: 505–8. ISSN 1011-8934. http://jkms.kams.or.kr/2004/pdf/08505.pdf. 
  27. ↑ Carolyn Smagalski (2006). "Gluten Free Beer Festival".

See also

External links

Cereals and pseudocereals
Amaranth · Barley · Buckwheat · Fonio · Job's Tears · Kañiwa · Maize (Corn) · Millet · Oat · Quinoa · Rice · Rye · Sorghum · Spelt · Triticale · Teff · Wild rice · Wheat