Cattle Egret

Cattle Egret
Breeding adult of nominate subspecies
Breeding adult of nominate subspecies
Conservation status
Status iucn3.1 LC.svg
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Ciconiiformes
Family: Ardeidae
Genus: Bubulcus
Bonaparte, 1855
Species: B. ibis
Binomial name
Bubulcus ibis
Linnaeus, 1758
Subspecies
B. i. ibis
Linnaeus, 1758
B. i. seychellarum
Salomonsen, 1934
B. i. coromandus
Boddaert, 1783
Synonyms

Ardea ibis
Buphus coromandus
Cancroma coromanda
Lepterodatis ibis
Bubulcus bubulcus

The Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) is a cosmopolitan species of heron (family Ardeidae) found in the tropics, subtropics and warm temperate zones. It is the only member of the monotypic genus Bubulcus, although some authorities regard its two subspecies as full species. Despite the similarities in plumage to the egrets of the genus Egretta, it is more closely related to the herons of Ardea. Originally native to parts of Asia, Africa and Europe, it has undergone a rapid expansion in its distribution and successfully colonised much of the rest of the world.

It is a stocky white bird adorned with buff plumes in the breeding season which nests in colonies, usually near bodies of water and often with other wading birds. The nest is a platform of sticks in trees or shrubs. Unlike most other herons, it feeds in relatively dry grassy habitats, often accompanying cattle or other large mammals, since it catches insect and small vertebrate prey disturbed by these animals. Some populations of the Cattle Egret are migratory and others show post-breeding dispersal.

The adult Cattle Egret has few predators, but birds or mammals may raid its nests, and chicks may be lost to starvation, calcium deficiency or disturbance from other large birds. This species removes ticks and flies from cattle, but it can be a safety hazard at airfields, and has been implicated in the spread of tick-borne animal diseases.

Contents

Taxonomy

The Cattle Egret was first described in 1758 by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae as Ardea ibis,[2] but was moved to its current genus by Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1855.[3] Its genus name Bubulcus is Latin for herdsman, referring, like the English name, to this species' association with cattle.[4] Ibis is a Latin and Greek word which originally referred to another white wading bird, the Sacred Ibis.[5]

The Cattle Egret has two geographical races which are sometimes classified as full species, the Western Cattle Egret, B. ibis, and Eastern Cattle Egret, B. coromandus. The two forms were split by McAllan and Bruce,[6] but were regarded as conspecific by almost all other recent authors until the publication of the influential Birds of South Asia.[7] The eastern subspecies B. (i.) coromandus, described by Pieter Boddaert in 1783, breeds in Asia and Australasia, and the western nominate form occupies the rest of the species's range, including the Americas.[8] Some authorities recognise a third Seychelles subspecies, B. i. seychellarum, which was first described by Finn Salomonsen in 1934.[9]

Despite superficial similarities in appearance, the Cattle Egret is more closely related to the genus Ardea, which comprises the great or typical herons and the Great Egret (A. alba), than to the majority of species termed egrets in the genus Egretta.[10] Rare cases of hybridization with Egretta caerulea, Egretta garzetta and Egretta thula have been recorded.[11]

Description

Breeding plumage adult B. i. coromandus

The Cattle Egret is a stocky heron with a 88–96 cm (35–38 in) wingspan; it is 46–56 centimetres (18–22 in) in length and weighs 270–512 grams (9.5–18.1 oz).[12] It has a relatively short thick neck, sturdy bill, and a hunched posture. The non-breeding adult has mainly white plumage, a yellow bill and greyish-yellow legs. During the breeding season, adults of the nominate western subspecies develop orange-buff plumes on the back, breast and crown, and the bill, legs and irises become bright red for a brief period prior to pairing.[13] The sexes are similar, but the male is marginally larger and has slightly longer breeding plumes than the female; juvenile birds lack coloured plumes and have a black bill.[14][12]

B. i. coromandus differs from the nominate subspecies in breeding plumage, when the buff colour on its head extends to the cheeks and throat, and the plumes are more golden in colour. This subspecies' bill and tarsus are longer on average than in B. i. ibis.[15] B. i. seychellarum is smaller and shorter-winged than the other forms. It has white cheeks and throat, like B. i. ibis, but the nuptial plumes are golden, as with B. i. coromandus.[9]

The positioning of the egret's eyes allows for binocular vision during feeding,[16] and physiological studies suggest that the species may be capable of crepuscular or nocturnal activity.[17] Adapted to foraging on land, they have lost the ability possessed by their wetland relatives to accurately correct for light refraction by water.[18]

This species gives a quiet, throaty "rick-rack" call at the breeding colony, but is otherwise largely silent.[19]

Distribution and habitat

Typical grassland habitat in Kolkata

The Cattle Egret has undergone one of the most rapid and wide reaching natural expansions of any bird species.[19] It was originally native to parts of Southern Spain and Portugal, tropical and subtropical Africa and humid tropical and subtropical Asia. In the end of the 19th century it began expanding its range into southern Africa, first breeding in the Cape Province in 1908.[20] Cattle Egrets were first sighted in the Americas on the boundary of Guiana and Suriname in 1877, having apparently flown across the Atlantic Ocean.[12][8] It was not until the 1930s that the species is thought to have become established in that area.[21]

The species first arrived in North America in 1941 (these early sightings were originally dismissed as escapees), bred in Florida in 1953, and spread rapidly, breeding for the first time in Canada in 1962.[20] It is now commonly seen as far west as California. It was first recorded breeding in Cuba in 1957, in Costa Rica in 1958, and in Mexico in 1963, although it was probably established before that.[21] In Europe the species had historically declined in Spain and Portugal, but in the latter part of the 20th century it expanded back through the Iberian Peninsula, and then began to colonise other parts of Europe; southern France in 1958, northern France in 1981 and Italy in 1985.[20] Breeding in the United Kingdom was recorded for the first time in 2008.[22]

In Australia the colonisation began in the 1940s, with the species establishing itself in the north and East of the continent.[23] It began to regularly visit New Zealand in the 1960s.

Looking for prey disturbed by a water buffalo

The massive and rapid expansion of the Cattle Egret's range is due to its relationship with humans and their domesticated animals. Originally adapted to a commensal relationship with large browsing animals, it was easily able to switch to domesticated cattle and horses. As livestock keeping spread throughout the world it was able to occupy otherwise empty niches.[24] Many populations of Cattle Egrets are highly migratory and dispersive,[19] and this has helped the species' range expansion. The species has been seen as a vagrant in various sub-Antarctic islands, including South Georgia, Marion Island, the South Sandwich Islands and the South Orkney Islands.[25] A small flock of eight birds was also seen in Fiji in 2008.[26]

In addition to the natural expansion of its range, Cattle Egrets have been introduced into a few areas. The species was introduced to Hawaii in 1959, and to the Chagos Archipelago in 1955. Successful releases were also made in the Seychelles and Rodrigues, but attempts to introduce the species to Mauritius failed. Numerous birds were also released by Whipsnade Zoo in England, but the species never established.[27]

Although the Cattle Egret sometimes feeds in shallow water, unlike most herons it is typically found in fields and dry grassy habitats, reflecting its greater dietary reliance on terrestrial insects rather than aquatic prey.[28]

Migration and movements

Some populations of Cattle Egrets are migratory, others are dispersive, and distinguishing between the two can be difficult for this species.[19] In many areas populations can be both sedentary and migratory. In the northern hemisphere migration is from cooler climes to warmer areas, but Cattle Egrets nesting in Australia migrate to cooler Tasmania and New Zealand in the winter and return in the spring.[23] Migration in western Africa is in response to rainfall, and in South America migrating birds travel south of their breeding range in the non breeding season.[19] Populations in southern India appear to show local migrations in response to the monsoons. They move north from Kerala after September.[29][30] During winter, many birds have been seen flying at night with flocks of Indian Pond Herons (Ardeola grayii) on the southeastern coast of India[31] and a winter influx has also been noted in Sri Lanka.[7]

Young birds are known to disperse up to 5,000 km (3,100 mi) from their breeding area. Flocks may fly vast distances and have been seen over seas and oceans including in the middle of the Atlantic.[32]

Status

This species has a large range, with an estimated global extent of occurrence of 10 million square kilometres (3.8 square miles). Its global population estimated to be 3.8–6.7 million individuals. For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern.[1] On the other hand the expansion and establishment of the species over large ranges has led it to be classed as an invasive species (although little, if any impact has been noted yet).[33]

Behaviour

Breeding

This eastern race adult shows the red flush on the legs and bill present at the height of the breeding season.

The Cattle Egret nests in colonies, which are often, but not always, found around bodies of water.[19] The colonies are usually found in woodlands near lakes or rivers, in swamps, or on small inland or coastal islands, and are sometimes shared with other wetland birds, such as herons, egrets, ibises and cormorants. The breeding season varies within South Asia.[7] Nesting in northern India begins with the onset of monsoons in May.[34] The breeding season in Australia is November to early January, with one brood laid per season.[35] The North American breeding season lasts from April to October.[19] In the Seychelles, the breeding season of the subspecies B.i. seychellarum is April to October.[36]

The male displays in a tree in the colony, using an range of ritualised behaviours such as shaking a twig and sky-pointing (raising bill vertically upwards),[37] and the pair forms over three or four days. A new mate is chosen in each season and when re-nesting following nest failure.[38] The nest is a small untidy platform of sticks in a tree or shrub constructed by both parents. Sticks are collected by the male and arranged by the female, and stick-stealing is rife.[14] The clutch size can be anywhere from one to five eggs, although three or four is most common. The pale bluish-white eggs are oval-shaped and measure 45 mm x 53 mm. (1.8–2.1 in)[35] Incubation lasts around 23 days, with both sexes sharing incubation duties.[19] The chicks are partly covered with down at hatching, but are not capable of fending for themselves; they become endothermic at 9–12 days and fully feathered in 13–21 days. They begin to leave the nest and climb around at 2 weeks, fledge at 30 days and become independent at around the 45th day.[38]

The Cattle Egret engages in low levels of brood parasitism, and there are a few instances of Cattle Egret eggs being laid in the nests of Snowy Egrets and Little Blue Herons, although these eggs seldom hatch.[19] There is also evidence of low levels of intraspecific brood parasitism, with females laying eggs in the nests of other Cattle Egrets. As much as 30% extra-pair copulations have been noted.[39][40]

The dominant factor in nesting mortality is starvation. Sibling rivalry can be intense, and in South Africa third and fourth chicks inevitably starve.[38] In the dryer habitats with fewer amphibians the diet may lack sufficient vertebrate content and may cause bone abnormalities in growing chicks due to calcium deficiency.[41] In Barbados, nests were sometimes raided by vervet monkeys,[8] and a study in Florida reported the Fish Crow and black rat as other possible nest raiders. The same study attributed some nestling mortality to Brown Pelicans nesting in the vicinity, which accidentally, but frequently, dislodged nests or caused nestlings to fall.[42] In Australia, Torresian Crows, Wedge-tailed Eagles and White-bellied Sea Eagles take eggs or young, and tick infestation and viral infections may also be causes of mortality.[14]

Feeding

Breeding eastern race adult with a frog

The Cattle Egret feeds on a wide range of prey, particularly insects, especially grasshoppers, crickets, flies, and moths, as well as spiders, frogs, and earthworms.[43][44] The species is usually found with cattle and other large grazing and browsing animals, and catches small creatures disturbed by the mammals. Studies have shown that Cattle Egret foraging success is much higher when foraging near a large animal than when feeding singly.[45] When foraging with cattle, it has been shown to be 3.6 times more successful in capturing prey than when foraging alone. Its performance is similar when it follows farm machinery, but it is forced to move more.[46]

A Cattle Egret will weakly defend the area around a grazing animal against others of the same species, but if the area is swamped by egrets it will give up and continue foraging elsewhere. Where numerous large animals are present, Cattle Egrets selectively forage around species that move at around 5–15 steps per minute, avoiding faster and slower moving herds; in Africa, Cattle Egrets selectively foraged behind Plains Zebras, Waterbuck, Blue Wildebeest and Cape Buffalo.[47] Dominant birds feed nearest to the host, and obtain more food.[14]

The Cattle Egret may also show versatility in its diet. On islands with seabird colonies, it will prey on the eggs and chicks of terns and other seabirds.[27] During migration it has also been reported to eat exhausted migrating landbirds.[48] Birds of the Seychelles race also indulge in some kleptoparasitism, chasing the chicks of Sooty Terns and forcing them to disgorge food.[49]

Non-breeding plumage

Relationship with humans

A conspicuous species, the Cattle Egret has attracted many common names. These mostly relate to its habit of following cattle and other large animals, and it is known variously as cow crane, cow bird or cow heron, or even elephant bird, rhinoceros egret.[19] Its Arabic name, abu qerdan, means “father of ticks", a name derived from the huge number of parasites such as avian ticks found in its breeding colonies.[50][19]

The Cattle Egrets is a popular bird with cattle ranchers for its perceived role as a biocontrol of cattle parasites such as ticks and flies.[19] A study in Australia found that Cattle Egrets reduced the number of flies that bothered cattle by pecking them directly off the skin.[51] It was the benefit to stock that prompted ranchers and the Hawaiian Board of Agriculture and Forestry to release the species in Hawaii.[27]

Not all interactions between humans and Cattle Egrets are beneficial. The Cattle Egret can be a potential safety hazard due to its habit of feeding in large groups in the grassy verges of airports,[52] and it has been implicated in the spread of animal infections such as heartwater and possibly Newcastle disease.[53][54]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 BirdLife International (2008). Bubulcus ibis. 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2008. Retrieved on 05 November 2008. Database entry includes justification for why this species is of least concern
  2. ↑ (Latin) Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata.. Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii).. pp. 144. "A. capite laevi, corpore albo, rostro flavescente apice pedibusque nigris". 
  3. ↑ (French) Bonaparte, Charles Lucien (1855). "[untitled]". Annales Des Sciences Naturelles comprenant la zoologie 4 (1): 141. 
  4. ↑ Valpy, Francis Edward Jackson (1828). An Etymological Dictionary of the Latin Language. London; A. J. Valpy. pp. 56. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=m2QSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA56&lpg=PA56&dq=bubulcus+herdsman&source=web&ots=HYN_TVYvuu&sig=9tnbSmSlU52S5gEKPwRxLRpvcEE&hl=en. 
  5. ↑ "Ibis". Webster’s Online Dictionary. Webster's. Retrieved on 2008-03-15.
  6. ↑ McAllan, I. A. W.; Bruce, M. D. (1988). The birds of New South Wales, a working list. ISBN 0958751609. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Rasmussen, Pamela C.; Anderton, John C. (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions. pp. 58. ISBN 84-87334-67-9. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Krebs, Elizabeth A.; Riven-Ramsey, Deborah; Hunte, W. (1994). "The Colonization of Barbados by Cattle Egrets (Bubulcus ibis) 1956–1990". Colonial Waterbirds 17 (1): 86–90. doi:10.2307/1521386. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Drury, William H.; Morgan, Allen H.; Stackpole, Richard (July 1953). "General notes" (PDF). The Auk 70: 364–365. http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v070n03/p0364-p0365.pdf. 
  10. ↑ Sheldon, F. H. (1987). "Phylogeny of herons estimated from DNA-DNA hybridization data. ". The Auk 104: 97–108. 
  11. ↑ McCarthy, Eugene M. (2006). Handbook of Avian Hybrids of the World.. Oxford University Press. pp. 190. ISBN 0195183231. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 "Cattle Egret". All about birds. Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology. Retrieved on 2008-02-28.
  13. ↑ Krebs, E. A.; Hunte, W.; Green, D. J. (2004). "Plume variation, breeding performance and extra-pair copulations in the cattle egret". Behaviour 141 (4): 479–499. doi:10.1163/156853904323066757. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 McKilligan, Neil (2005) (PDF extract). Herons, Egrets and Bitterns: Their Biology and Conservation in Australia. CSIRO Publishing. pp. 88–93. ISBN 0643091335. 
  15. ↑ Biber, Jean-Pierre. "Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus, 1758)" (PDF). Appendix 3. CITES. Retrieved on 2008-03-16.
  16. ↑ Martin, G. R.; Katzir, G. (1994). "Visual Fields and Eye Movements in Herons (Ardeidae)". Brain Behavior and Evolution 44: 74–85. doi:10.1159/000113571. 
  17. ↑ Rojas, L. M.; McNeil, R.; Cabana, T.; Lachapelle, P. (1999). "Behavioral, Morphological and Physiological Correlates of Diurnal and Nocturnal Vision in Selected Wading Bird Species". Brain Behavior and Evolution 53: 227–242. doi:10.1159/000006596. 
  18. ↑ Katzir, G.; Strod, T.; Schectman, E.; Hareli, S.; Arad, Z. (1999). "Cattle egrets are less able to cope with light refraction than are other herons". Animal Behaviour 57 (3): 687–694. doi:10.1006/anbe.1998.1002. 
  19. ↑ 19.00 19.01 19.02 19.03 19.04 19.05 19.06 19.07 19.08 19.09 19.10 19.11 Telfair II, Raymond C. (2006). "Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from The Birds of North America Online doi:10.2173/bna.113
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Martínez-Vilalta, A. & A. Motis (1992) "Family Ardeidae (Herons)" in del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Sargatal, J. (editors). (1992). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks. Lynx Edicions. ISBN 8487334091 401–402
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Crosby, G. (1972). "Spread of the Cattle Egret in the Western Hemisphere" (PDF). Journal of Field Ornithology 43 (3): 205– 212. http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/JFO/v043n03/p0205-p0212.pdf. 
  22. ↑ "First cattle egrets breed in UK". BBC News. Retrieved on 2008-07-24.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Maddock, M. (1990). "Cattle Egrets: South to Tasmania and New Zealand for the winter" (PDF). Notornis 37 (1): 1–23. http://www.notornis.org.nz/free_issues/Notornis_37-1990/Notornis_37_1_1.pdf. 
  24. ↑ Botkin, D. B. (2001). "The naturalness of biological invasions". Western North American Naturalist 61 (3): 261–266. 
  25. ↑ Silva, M. P.; Coria, N. E.;Favero, M.; Casaux, R. J. (1995). "New Records of Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis, Blacknecked Swan Cygnus melancoryhyphus and White-rumped Sandpiper Calidris fuscicollis from the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica" (PDF). Marine Ornithology 23: 65–66. http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/23_1/MO_1995_11.pdf. 
  26. ↑ Dutson, G.; Watling, D. (2007). "Cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis) and other vagrant birds in Fiji". Notornis 51 (4): 54–55. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Lever, C. (1987). Naturalised Birds of the World. Longman Scientific & Technical; Harlow, Essex.. pp. 15–17. ISBN ISBN 0-582-46055-7. 
  28. ↑ Mullarney, Killian; Svensson, Lars; Zetterstrom, Dan; Grant, Peter (2001). Birds of Europe. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691050546. 
  29. ↑ Seedikkoya, K.; Azeez, P. A.; Shukkur, E. A. A. (2005). "Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis habitat use and association with cattle" (PDF). Forktail 21: 174–176. http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/forktail/21pdf/Seedikkoya-CattleEgret.pdf. 
  30. ↑ Kushlan, James A.; Hafner, Heinz (2000). Heron Conservation. Academic Press. pp. 64–65 ISBN 9780124301306. 
  31. ↑ Santharam, V. (1988). "Further notes on the local movements of the Pond Heron Ardeola grayii". Newsletter for Birdwatchers 28 (1–2): 8–9. 
  32. ↑ Arendt, Wayne J. (1988). "Range Expansion of the Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) in the Greater Caribbean Basin". Colonial Waterbirds 11 (2): 252–262. doi:10.2307/1521007. 
  33. ↑ "Bubulcus ibis (bird)". Global Invasive Species Database. Retrieved on 2008-02-06.
  34. ↑ Hilaluddin; Kaul, Rahul; Hussain, Mohd Shah ; Imam, Ekwal; Shah, Junid N.; Abbasi, Faiza; Shawland, Tahir A. (2005). "Status and distribution of breeding cattle egret and little egret in Amroha using density method" (PDF). Current Science 88 (25): 1239–1243. http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/apr252005/1239.pdf. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Beruldsen, G. (2003). Australian Birds: Their Nests and Eggs. Kenmore Hills, Qld: self. pp. 182. ISBN 0-646-42798-9. 
  36. ↑ Skerrett, A; Bullock, I; Disley, T (2001). Birds of Seychelles. Helm Field Guides. ISBN 0-7136-3973-3. 
  37. ↑ Marchant, S.; Higgins, P.J (1990). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds, Volume 1 (Ratites to Ducks). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-550368-3. 
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Kushlan, James A.; Hancock, James (2005). Herons. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198549814. 
  39. ↑ Fujioka, M.; Yamagishi, S. (1981). "Extra-marital and pair copulations in cattle egret". The Auk 98: 134–144. 
  40. ↑ McKilligan, N. G. (1990). "Promiscuity in the cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis)". The Auk 107: 334–341. 
  41. ↑ Phalen, David N.; Drew, Mark L.; Contreras, Cindy; Roset, Kimberly; Mora, Miguel (2005). "Naturally occurring secondary nutritional hyperparathyroidism in cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis) from central Texas". Journal of Wildlife Diseases 41 (2): 401–415. 
  42. ↑ Maxwell, G. R., II; Kale, H. W., II (1977). "Breeding biology of five species of herons in coastal Florida". The Auk 94: 689–700. 
  43. ↑ Siegfried, W. R. (1971). "The Food of the Cattle Egret". Journal of Applied Ecology 8 (2): 447–468. doi:10.2307/2402882. 
  44. ↑ Fogarty, Michael J.; Hetrick, Willa Mae (1973). "Summer Foods of Cattle Egrets in North Central Florida". The Auk 90 (2): 268–280. 
  45. ↑ Grubb, T. (1976). "Adaptiveness of Foraging in the Cattle Egret". Wilson Bulletin 88 (1): 145–148. 
  46. ↑ Dinsmore, James J. (1973). "Foraging Success of Cattle Egrets, Bubulcus ibis". American Midland Naturalist 89 (1): 242–246. doi:10.2307/2424157. 
  47. ↑ Burger, J.; Gochfeld, M. (1993). "Making Foraging Decisions: Host Selection by Cattle Egrets Bubulcus ibis". Ornis Scandinavica 24 (3): 229–236. doi:10.2307/3676738. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0030-5693%28199307%2F09%2924%3A3%3C229%3AMFDHSB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-H. 
  48. ↑ Cunningham, R. L. (1965). "Predation on birds by the Cattle Egret" (PDF). The Auk 82: 502–503. http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v082n03/p0502-p0503.pdf. 
  49. ↑ Feare, C. J. (1975). "Scavenging and kleptoparasitism as feeding methods on Seychelles Cattle Egrets, Bubulcus ibis". Ibis 117: 388. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1975.tb04229.x. 
  50. ↑ McAtee, Waldo Lee (October 1925). "The Buff-backed Egret (Ardea ibis L., Arabic Abu Qerdan) as a Factor in Egyptian Agriculture" (PDF). The Auk 42 (4): 603–604. 
  51. ↑ McKilligan, N. G. (1984). "The food and feeding ecology of the Cattle Egret Ardeola ibis when nesting in south-east Queensland". Australian Wildlife Research 11: 133–144. doi:10.1071/WR9840133. http://www.publish.csiro.au/nid/144/paper/WR9840133.htm. 
  52. ↑ Paton, P.; Fellows, D.; Tomich, P. (1986). "Distribution of Cattle Egret Roosts in Hawaii With Notes on the Problems Egrets Pose to Airports". Elepaio 46 (13): 143–147. 
  53. ↑ "Heartwater". Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Retrieved on 2008-04-13.
  54. ↑ Fagbohun, O. A.; Oluwayelu, D. O.; Owoade, A. A.; Olayemi, F. O. (2000). "Survey for antibodies to Newcastle Disease virus in cattle egrets, pigeons and Nigerian laughing doves" (PDF). African. Journal of Biomedical. Research 3: 193–194. https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/7319/1/md00054.pdf. 

External links