Bhagavad Gita

Krishna, Arjuna at Kurukshetra, 18-19 th century painting.

The Bhagavad Gita (Sanskrit भगवद् गीता, Bhagavad Gītā, "Song of God") is an important Sanskrit Hindu scripture. It is revered as a sacred scripture of Hinduism,[1][2] and considered as one of the most important religious classics of the world.[3] The Bhagavad Gita is a part of the Mahabharata, comprising of 700 verses. The teacher of the Bhagavad Gita is Sri Krishna, who is regarded by the Hindus as the supreme manifestation of the Lord Himself,[3] and is referred to within as Bhagavan—the divine one.[4] The Bhagavad Gita is commonly referred to as The Gita for short.

The content of the Gita is the conversation between Krishna and Arjuna taking place on the battlefield before the start of the Kurukshetra war. Responding to Arjuna's confusion and moral dilemma, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince and elaborates on different Yogic[5] and Vedantic philosophies, with examples and analogies. This has led to the Gita often being described as a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and also as a practical, self-contained guide to life. Other noted experts have described it as a lighthouse of eternal wisdom that has the ability to inspire any man or woman to supreme accomplishment and enlightenment. [6] During the discourse, Krishna reveals his identity as the Supreme Being Himself (Svayam bhagavan), blessing Arjuna with an awe-inspiring vision of his divine universal form.

The Bhagavad Gita is also called Gitopanishad as well as Yogopanishad, implying its status as an Upanishad, or a Vedantic scripture.[7] Since the Gita is drawn from the Mahabharata, it is included in Smriti texts. However, being one of the Upanishads, it has a status of śruti, or revealed knowledge.[8][9] Since the Bhagavad Gita represents a summary of the Upanishadic teachings, it is also called as the Upanishad of the Upanishads.[1] The Gita is also called a mokshashastra, or scripture of liberation, since it deals with the science of the absolute and lays down the way to emancipation.[10]

Contents

Date and text

Bhagavad Gita, a 19th century manuscript.
For historicity of the Mahabharata war, see: Mahabharatha

The Bhagavad Gita occurs in the Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata and comprises 18 chapters from the 25th to the 42nd and consists of 700 verses.[11][12] The verses themselves, using the range and style of Sanskrit meter (chhandas) with similes and metaphors, are written in a poetic form that is traditionally chanted; hence the title, which translates to "the Song of the Divine One".

The Bhagavad Gita is later than the great movement represented by the early Upanishads and earlier than the period of the development of the philosophic systems and their formulation in the sutras. The origin of the Gita is definitely in the pre-Christian era.[13] The date of composition and the author of the Gita is not known with certainty. Almost all the books belonging to the early literature of India are anonymous.[13] However the authorship of the Gita is attributed to Vyasa, the compiler of the Mahabharatha.[13][14] Scholars have opined that the date of composition of the Bhagavad Gita is between the fifth century B.C. and second century B.C[13][15][16]

Based on claims of differences in the poetic styles some scholars like Jinarajadasa have argued that the Bhagavad Gita was added to the Mahabharata at a later date.[17][18]

Within the text of the Bhagavad Gita itself Krishna claims that the knowledge of Yoga contained in the Gita was first instructed to mankind at the very beginning of their existence.[19]

As Hinduism has historically had an oral tradition of transmitting knowledge from generation to generation for thousands of years, it is not uncommon for religious traditions within Hinduism to believe that the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita are much older than the dates ascribed to it by modern scholars as to when it was inked to paper.[20]

Although the original date of composition of the Bhagavad Gita is not clear, its teachings are considered timeless and the exact time of revelation of the scripture is considered to be of little spiritual significance by scholars like Bansi Pandit, Juan Mascaro.[1][21] Swami Vivekananda dismisses concerns about differences of opinion regarding the historical events as unimportant for study of the Gita from the point of acquirement of Dharma.[22]

Prelude to Bhagavad Gita

Main articles: Mahabharata, Kurukshetra war, and Krishna

The main theme of the Mahabharata is the exploits of two families of royal cousins, known as the Pandavas and the kauravas, who were the sons of two brothers, Pandu and Dhritarashtra, respectively. Since Dhritarashtra was born blind, Pandu inherited the ancestral kingdom, comprising a part of northern India around modern Delhi. The pandava brothers were Yudhishthira the eldest, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva. The kaurava brothers were one hundred in number, Duryodhana being the eldest. When pandu died at an early age, his young children were placed under the care of their uncle Dhritarashtra who usurped the throne.[23][24]

The pandavas and the Kauravas were brought up together in the same household and had the same teachers, the most notable of whom were Bhishma and Dronacharya.[24] Bhishma, the wise grandsire, acted as their chief guradian, and the brahmin Drona was their military instructor. The pandavas were endowed with righteousness, self control, nobility, and many other knightly traits. On the other hand, the hundred sons of Dhritarashtra, especially Duryodhana, were endowed with negative qualities and were cruel, unrighteous, unscrupulous, greedy, and lustful. Duryodhana being jealous of his five cousins, contrived various means to destroy them.[25]

When the time came to crown Yudhisthira, the eldest of the pandavas as the prince, Duryodhana, through a crooked game of dice, exiled the pandavas into the forest.[24] On their return from banishment the pandavas demanded the return of their legitimate kingdom. Duryodhana who had consolidated his power by many alliances, refused to restore their legal and moral rights. Attempts by elders and Krishna who was a friend of the Pandavas and also a well wisher of the kauravas, to resolve the issue failed. Nothing would satisfy Duryodhana's inordinate greed.[26][27]

War became inevitable. Both Duryodhana and Arjuna requested Krishna to support them in fighting the war, since he possessed the strongest army, and was revered as the wisest teacher and the greatest yogi. Krishna offered to give this vast armies to one of them and to become a charioteer and counselor for the other, but he would not to touch any weapon nor to participate in the battle in any manner.[26] While Duryodhana chose Krishna's vast army, Arjuna preferred to have Krishna as his charioteer.[28] The whole realm responded to the call of the pandavas and the Kauravas. The kings, princes, and knights of India with their armies, assembled on the sacred plain of Kurukshetra.[26] The blind kind Dhritharashtra wished to follow the progress of the battle. The sage Vyasa offered to endow him with supernatural sight; but the king refused the boon, for he felt that the sight of the destruction of his near and dear ones would be too much for him to bear. Thereupon Vyasa bestowed supernatural sight on Sanjaya, who was to act as reporter to Dhritarashtra. The Gita opens with the question of the blind king to Sanjaya regarding what happened on the battle-field when the two armies faced each other in battle array.[29]

Background

Statue representing the discourse of Krishna and Arjuna, located in Tirumala

The discourse on the Bhagavad Gita begins before the start of the climactic battle at Kurukshetra. It begins with the Pandava prince Arjuna, as he becomes filled with doubt on the battlefield. Realizing that his enemies are his own relatives, beloved friends and revered teachers, he turns to his charioteer and guide, Krishna, for advice.

In summary the main philosophical subject matter of the Bhagavad-gita is the explanation of five basic concepts or "truths":[30]

Krishna counsels Arjuna on the greater idea of dharma or universal harmony and duty. He begins with the tenet that the soul is eternal and immortal.[31] Any 'death' on the battlefield would involve only the shedding of the body, but the soul is permanent. Arjuna's hesitation stems from a lack of right understanding of the 'nature of things,' the privileging of the unreal over the real. His fear and reticence become impediments to the proper balancing of the universal dharmic order. Essentially, Arjuna wishes to abandon the battle, to abstain from action; Krishna warns, however, that without action, the cosmos would fall out of order and truth would be obscured.

In order to clarify his point, Krishna expounds the various Yoga processes and understanding of the true nature of the universe. Krishna describes the yogic paths of devotional service,[32] action,[33] meditation[34] and knowledge.[35] Fundamentally, the Bhagavad Gita proposes that true enlightenment comes from growing beyond identification with the temporal ego, the 'False Self', the ephemeral world, so that one identifies with the truth of the immortal self, the absolute soul or Atman. Through detachment from the material sense of ego, the Yogi, or follower of a particular path of Yoga, is able to transcend his/her illusory mortality and attachment to the material world and enter the realm of the Supreme.[36]

It should be noted, however, that Krishna does not propose that the physical world must be forgotten or neglected. Indeed, it is quite the opposite: one's life on earth must be lived in accordance with greater laws and truths, one must embrace one's temporal duties whilst remaining mindful of a more timeless reality, acting for the sake of action without consideration for the results thereof. Such a life would naturally lead towards stability, happiness and ultimately, enlightenment.

To demonstrate his divine nature, Krishna grants Arjuna the boon of cosmic vision (albeit temporary) and allows the prince to see his 'Universal Form' (this occurs in the eleventh chapter).[37] He reveals that he is fundamentally both the ultimate essence of Being in the universe and also its material body, called the Vishvarupa ('Universal Form').

In the Bhagavad-Gita Krishna refers to the war about to take place as 'Dharma Yuddha', meaning a righteous war for the purpose of justice. In Chapter 4, Krishna states that he incarnates in each age (yuga) to establish righteousness in the world.[38]

War as an allegory

There are many who regard the story behind the Gita not as historical fact but as an allegory. Mahatma Gandhi, throughout his life and his own commentary on the Gita,[39] interpreted the battle as "an allegory in which the battlefield is the soul and Arjuna, man's higher impulses struggling against evil."[40] Swami Vivekananda also said that the first discourse in the Gita related to war can be taken allegorically.[41] Vivekananda further remarks, "this Kurukshetra War is only an allegory. When we sum up its esoteric significance, it means the war which is constantly going on within man between the tendencies of good and evil."[14]

Swami Nikhilananda interprets the war allegorically as follows,[42]

“ Arjuna represents the individual soul, and Sri Krishna the Supreme Soul dwelling in every heart. Arjuna's chariot is the body. The blind king Dhritarashtra is the mind under the spell of ignorance, and his hundred sons are man's numerous evil tendencies. The battle, a perennial one, is between the power of good and the power of evil. The warrior who listens to the advice of the Lord speaking from within will triumph in this battle and attain the Highest Good. ”

Overview of chapters

The Gita consists of eighteen chapters in total:

  1. Arjuna requests Krishna to move his chariot between the two armies. When Arjuna sees his relatives on the opposing army side of the Kurus, he loses courage and decides not to fight.
  2. After asking Krishna for help, Arjuna is instructed that only the body may be killed, while the eternal self is immortal. Krishna appeals to Arjuna that as a warrior he has a duty to uphold the path of dharma through warfare.
  3. Arjuna asks why he should engage in fighting if knowledge is more important than action. Krishna stresses to Arjuna that performing his duties for the greater good, but without attachment to results is the appropriate course of action.
  4. Krishna reveals that He has lived through many births, always teaching Yoga for the protection of the pious and the destruction of the impious and stresses the importance of accepting a guru.
  5. Arjuna asks Krishna if it is better to forgo action or to act. Krishna answers that both ways may be beneficent, but that acting in Karma Yoga is superior.
  6. Krishna describes the correct posture for meditation and the process of how to achieve samadhi.
  7. Krishna teaches the path of knowledge (Jnana Yoga).
  8. Krishna defines the terms brahman, adhyatma, karma, atman, adhibhuta and adhidaiva and explains how one can remember him at the time of death and attain His supreme abode.
  9. Krishna explains panentheism, "all beings are in Me" as a way of remembering Him in all circumstances.
  10. Krishna describes how He is the ultimate source of all material and spiritual worlds. Arjuna accepts Krishna as the Supreme Being, quoting great sages who have also done so.
  11. On Arjuna's request, Krishna displays His "universal form" (Viśvarūpa), a theophany of a being facing every way and emitting the radiance of a thousand suns, containing all other beings and material in existence.
  12. Krishna describes the process of devotional service (Bhakti Yoga).
  13. Krishna describes nature (prakrti), the enjoyer (purusha) and consciousness.
  14. Krishna explains the three modes (gunas) of material nature.
  15. Krishna describes a symbolic tree (representing material existence), its roots in the heavens and its foliage on earth. Krishna explains that this tree should be felled with the "axe of detachment", after which one can go beyond to his supreme abode.
  16. Krishna tells of the human traits of the divine and the demonic natures. He counsels that to attain the supreme destination one give up lust, anger and greed, discern between right and wrong action by evidence from scripture and thus act rightly.
  17. Krishna tells of three divisions of faith and the thoughts, deeds and even eating habits corresponding to the three gunas.
  18. In conclusion, Krishna asks Arjuna to abandon all forms of dharma and simply surrender unto Him. He describes this as the ultimate perfection of life.

Scripture of Yoga

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The Gita addresses the discord between the senses and the intuition of cosmic order. It speaks of the Yoga of equanimity, a detached outlook. The term Yoga covers a wide range of meanings, but in the context of the Bhagavad Gita, describes a unified outlook, serenity of mind, skill in action and the ability to stay attuned to the glory of the Self (Atman) and the Supreme Being (Bhagavan). According to Krishna, the root of all suffering and discord is the agitation of the mind caused by selfish desire. The only way to douse the flame of desire is by simultaneously stilling the mind through self-discipline and engaging oneself in a higher form of activity.

However, abstinence from action is regarded as being just as detrimental as extreme indulgence. According to the Bhagavad Gita, the goal of life is to free the mind and intellect from their complexities and to focus them on the glory of the Self by dedicating one's actions to the divine. This goal can be achieved through the Yogas of meditation, action, devotion and knowledge. In the sixth chapter, Krishna describes the best Yogi as one who constantly meditates upon him[43] - which is understood to mean thinking of either Krishna personally, or the supreme Brahman - with different schools of Hindu thought giving varying points of view.

Krishna summarizes the Yogas through eighteen chapters. Three yogas in particular have been emphasized by commentators:

While each path differs, their fundamental goal is the same - to realize Brahman (the Divine Essence) as being the ultimate truth upon which our material universe rests, that the body is temporal, and that the Supreme Soul (Paramatman) is infinite. Yoga's aim (moksha) is to escape from the cycle of reincarnation through realization of the ultimate reality. There are three stages to self-realization enunciated from the Bhagavad Gita:

1. Brahman - The impersonal universal energy
2. Paramatma - The Supreme Soul sitting in the heart of every living entity.
3. Bhagavan - God as a personality, with a transcendental form.

Major themes of yoga

The influential commentator Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita's eighteen chapters into three sections, each of six chapters. According to his method of division the first six chapters deal with Karma Yoga, which is the means to the final goal, and the last six deal with the goal itself, which he says is Knowledge (Jnana). The middle six deal with bhakti.[44] Swami Gambhirananda characterizes Madhusudana Sarasvati's system as a successive approach in which Karma yoga leads to Bhakti yoga, which in turn leads to Jnana yoga.[45] This system has been adopted by later commentators and rejected by others.

Karma Yoga

Main article: Karma Yoga

Karma Yoga is essentially Acting, or doing one's duties in life as per his/her dharma, or duty, without concern of results - a sort of constant sacrifice of action to the Supreme. It is action done without thought of gain. In a more modern interpretation, it can be viewed as duty bound deeds done without letting the nature of the result affecting one's actions. Krishna advocates Nishkam Karma (Selfless Action) as the ideal path to realize the Truth. Allocated work done without expectations, motives, or thinking about its outcomes tends to purify one's mind and gradually makes an individual fit to see the value of reason and the benefits of renouncing the work itself. These concepts are vividly described in the following verses:

"To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its fruits; let not the fruits of action be thy motive; neither let there be in thee any attachment to inaction"[46]
"Fixed in yoga, do thy work, O Winner of wealth (Arjuna), abandoning attachment, with an even mind in success and failure, for evenness of mind is called yoga"[47]
"With the body, with the mind, with the intellect, even merely with the senses, the Yogis perform action toward self-purification, having abandoned attachment. He who is disciplined in Yoga, having abandoned the fruit of action, attains steady peace..."[48]

In order to achieve true liberation, it is important to control all mental desires and tendencies to enjoy sense pleasures. The following verses illustrate this:[49]

"When a man dwells in his mind on the object of sense, attachment to them is produced. From attachment springs desire and from desire comes anger."
"From anger arises bewilderment, from bewilderment loss of memory; and from loss of memory, the destruction of intelligence and from the destruction of intelligence he perishes"

Bhakti Yoga

Main article: Bhakti Yoga

According to Catherine Cornille, Associate Professor of Theology at Boston College, "The text [of the Gita] offers a survey of the different possible disciplines for attaining liberation through knowledge (jnana), ritual action (karma) and loving devotion to God (bhakti), focusing on the latter as both the easiest and the highest path to salvation."[50]

In the introduction to Chapter Seven of the Gita, bhakti is summed up as a mode of worship which consists of unceasing and loving remembrance of God. As M. R. Sampatkumaran explains in his overview of Ramanuja's commentary on the Gita, "The point is that mere knowledge of the scriptures cannot lead to final release. Devotion, meditation and worship are essential."[51]

As Krishna says in the Bhagavad Gita:

Jnana Yoga

Main article: Jnana Yoga

Jnana Yoga is a process of learning to discriminate between what is real and what is not, what is eternal and what is not. Through a steady advancement in realization of the distinction between Real and the Unreal, the Eternal and the Temporal, one develops into a Jnana Yogi. This is essentially a path of knowledge and discrimination in regards to the difference between the immortal soul (atman) and the body.

In the second chapter, Krishna’s counsel begins with a succinct exposition of Jnana Yoga. Krishna argues that there is no reason to lament for those who are about to be killed in battle, because never was there a time when they were not, nor will there be a time when they will cease to be. Krishna explains that the self (atman) of all these warriors is indestructible. Fire cannot burn it, water cannot wet it, and wind cannot dry it. It is this Self that passes from body to another body like a person taking worn out clothing and putting on new ones. Krishna’s counsel is intended to alleviate the anxiety that Arjuna feels seeing a battle between two great armies about to commence. However, Arjuna is not an intellectual. He is a warrior, a man of action, for whom the path of action, Karma Yoga, is more appropriate.

"When a sensible man ceases to see different identities due to different material bodies and he sees how beings are expanded everywhere, he attains to the Brahman conception."[58]
"Those who see with eyes of knowledge the difference between the body and the knower of the body, and can also understand the process of liberation from bondage in material nature, attain to the supreme goal."[59]

Eighteen Yogas

In Sanskrit editions of the Gita, the Sanskrit text includes a traditional chapter title naming each chapter as a particular form of yoga. These chapter titles do not appear in the Sanskrit text of the Mahabharata.[60] Since there are eighteen chapters, there are therefore eighteen yogas mentioned, as explained in this quotation from Swami Chidbhavananda:

All the eighteen chapters in the Gita are designated, each as a type of yoga. The function of the yoga is to train the body and the mind.... The first chapter in the Gita is designated as system of yoga. It is called Arjuna Vishada Yogam - Yoga of Arjuna's Dejection.[61]

In Sanskrit editions, these eighteen chapter titles all use the word yoga, but in English translations the word yoga may not appear. For example, the Sanskrit title of Chapter 1 as given in Swami Sivananda's bilingual edition is arjunaviṣādayogaḥ which he translates as "The Yoga of the Despondency of Arjuna".[62] Swami Tapasyananda's bilingual edition gives the same Sanskrit title, but translates it as "Arjuna's Spiritual Conversion Through Sorrow".[63] The English-only translation by Radhakrishnan gives no Sanskrit, but the chapter title is translated as "The Hesitation and Despondency of Arjuna".[64] Other English translations, such as that by Zaehner, omit these chapter titles entirely.[65]

Swami Sivananda's commentary says that the eighteen chapters have a progressive order to their teachings, by which Krishna "pushed Arjuna up the ladder of Yoga from one rung to another."[66] As Winthrop Sargeant explains,

In the model presented by the Bhagavad Gītā, every aspect of life is in fact a way of salvation.[67]

Dhyana Yoga

Main article: Dhyana in Hinduism

Dhyana Yoga is the stilling of the mind and body through meditating techniques, geared at realizing one's true nature. A very similar (if not identical) practice was later described by Patanjali in his Yoga Sutras.

To practice yoga, one should go to a secluded place and should lay kusa grass on the ground and then cover it with a deerskin and a soft cloth. The seat should be neither too high nor too low and should be situated in a sacred place. The yogi should then sit on it very firmly and practice yoga to purify the heart by controlling his mind, senses and activities and fixing the mind on one point. One should hold one's body, neck and head erect in a straight line and stare steadily at the tip of the nose. Thus, with an unagitated, subdued mind, devoid of fear, completely free from sex life, one should meditate upon Me within the heart and make Me the ultimate goal of life. Thus practicing constant control of the body, mind and activities, the mystic transcendentalist, his mind regulated, attains to the kingdom of God [or the abode of Krishna] by cessation of material existence.[68]

Note: Alternative versions of the above verse state that the top of the nose (between the eyebrows) should be meditated upon, rather than the tip.[69]

Message or the summary of the Gita

Several scholars and philosophers have tried to summarise the central teaching of the Bhagavad Gita.

Scholar Radhakrishnan writes that the verse 11.55 is the "the essence of bhakti" and the "substance of the whole teaching of the Gita"[70]—

“ He who does work for Me, he who looks upon Me as his goal, he who worships Me, free from attachment, who is free from enmity to all creatures, he goes to Me, O Pandava. ”

Scholar Steven Rosen summarizes the Gita in four nutshell verses,[71]

“

"I am the source of all spiritual and material worlds. Everything emanates from him. The Wise who fully realize this engage in my devotional service and worship me with all their hearts." (10.8)
"My pure devotees are absorbed in in thoughts of me, and they experience fulfillment and bliss by enlightening one another and conversing about me." (10.9)
"To those who are continually devoted and worship me with love, I give the understanding by which they can come to me." (10.10)
"Out of compassion for them, I, residing in their hearts, destroy with the shining lamp of knowledge the darkness born of ignorance." (10.11)

 ”

Ramakrishna said that the essential message of the Gita can be obtained by repeating the word several times,[72] "'Gita, Gita, Gita', you begin, but then find yourself saying 'ta-Gi, ta-Gi, ta-Gi'. Tagi means one who has renounced everything for God."

According to Swami Vivekananda, "If one reads this one Shloka —क्लैब्यं मा स्म गमः पार्थ नैतत्त्वय्युपपद्यते । क्षुद्रं हृदयदौर्बल्यं त्यक्त्वोत्तिष्ठ परंतप॥ — one gets all the merits of reading the entire Gita; for in this one Shloka lies imbedded the whole Message of the Gita."[73]—

“ Do not yield to unmanliness, O son of Pritha. It does not become you. Shake off this base faint-heartnedness and arise, O scorcher of enemies! (2.3) ”

Mahatma Gandhi writes, "The object of the Gita appears to me to be that of showing the most excellent way to attain self-realization" and Gandhi writes that this can achieved by selfless action—"By desireless action; by renouncing fruits of action; by dedicating all activities to God, i.e., by surrendering oneself to Him body and soul." Gandhi called Gita, The Gospel of Selfless Action.[74]

Influence

‘‘The Blessed Lord said: I am the inflamed Time (Death), the destroyer of the worlds. I have come to destroy all these people. Even without you, all those warriors arrayed in the opposing armies shall be slain.’’ 11:32

In a heterogeneous text, the Gita reconciles facets and schools of Hindu philosophy, including those of Brahmanical (orthodox Vedic) origin and the parallel ascetic and Yogic traditions. It comprises Upanishadic, Sankhya and Yogic philosophies. It had always been a creative text for Hindu priests and Yogis. Although it is not strictly part of the 'canon' of Vedic writings, almost all Hindu traditions draw upon the Gita as authoritative. For the Vedantic schools of Hindu philosophy, it belongs to one of the three foundational texts Prasthana Trayi (lit. "three points of departure"), the other two being the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras.

"[T]he authority and influence of the Bhagavad Gita is such that...It has been called "India's favourite Bible", and with its emphasis on selfless service it was a prime source of inspiration for Mahatma Gandhi."[75] Among the great sages and philosophers who have drawn inspiration from the Bhagavad Gita is Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, who initiated the public singing of the "Hare Krishna" mantra.

J. Robert Oppenheimer, American physicist and director of the Manhattan Project, learned Sanskrit in 1933 and read the Bhagavad Gita in the original, citing it later as one of the most influential books to shape his philosophy of life. Upon witnessing the world's first nuclear test in 1945, he quoted "Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds" based on verse 32 from Chapter 11 of the Bhagavad Gita.[76][77]

A 2006 report suggests that the Gita is replacing the influence of the "The Art of War" (ascendant in the 1980s and '90s) in the Western business community.[78]

The Bhagavad Gita has frequently been cited as part of the complex web of mythic and literary influences on Cormac McCarthy's novel Blood Meridian. In his introduction to the Penguin Classics edition of The Bhagavad Gita, Simon Brodbeck writes that the novel "has resonances with the The Bhagavad Gita on many levels. It is set in a time of violence, uncertainty and rapid change, against which is expounded a philosophy of detachment in action."

Commentaries

Traditionally the commentators belong to spiritual traditions or schools (sampradaya) and Guru lineages (parampara), which claim to preserve teaching stemming either directly from Krishna himself or from other sources, each claiming to be faithful to the original message. In the words of Hiriyanna, "[The Gita] is one of the hardest books to interpret, which accounts for the numerous commentaries on it - each differing from the rest in an essential point or the other."[79]

Different translators and commentators have widely differing views on what multi-layered Sanskrit words and passages signify, and their presentation in English depending on the sampradaya they are affiliated to. Especially in Western philology, interpretations of particular passages often do not agree with traditional views.

The oldest and most influential medieval commentary was that of the founder of the Vedanta school[80] of extreme 'non-dualism", Shankara (788-820 A. D.),[81] also known as Shankaracharya (Sanskrit: Śaṅkarācārya).[82] Shankara's commentary was based on a recension of the Gita containing 700 verses, and that recension has been widely adopted by others.[83] There is not universal agreement that he was the actual author of the commentary on the Bhagavad Gita that is attributed to him.[84] A key commentary for the "modified non-dualist" school of Vedanta[85] was written by Ramanujacharya (Sanskrit: Rāmānujacharya), who lived in the eleventh century A.D.[82][86] Ramanujacharya's commentary chiefly seeks to show that the discipline of devotion to God (Bhakti yoga) is the way of salvation.[87] The commentary by Madhva, whose dates are given either as (b. 1199 - d. 1276)[88] or as (b. 1238 - d. 1317),[67] also known as Madhvacharya (Sanskrit: Madhvācārya), exemplifies thinking of the "dualist" school.[82] Madhva's school of dualism asserts that there is, in a quotation provided by Winthrop Sargeant, "an eternal and complete distinction between the Supreme, the many souls, and matter and its divisions."[67] Madhva is also considered to be one of the great commentators reflecting the viewpoint of the Vedanta school.[89]

In the Shaiva tradition,[90] the renowned philosopher Abhinavagupta (10-11th century CE) has written a commentary on a slightly variant recension called Gitartha-Samgraha.

Other classical commentators include Nimbarka (1162 AD), Vallabha(1479 AD).,[91] while Dnyaneshwar (1275-1296 AD) translated and commented on the Gita in Marathi, in his book Dnyaneshwari.

In modern times notable commentaries were written by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi, who used the text to help inspire the Indian independence movement.[92][93] Tilak wrote his commentary while in jail during the period 1910-1911, while he was serving a six-year sentence imposed by the British colonial government in India for sedition.[94] While noting that the Gita teaches possible paths to liberation, his commentary places most emphasis on Karma yoga.[95] No book was more central to Gandhi's life and thought than the Bhagavadgita, which he referred to as his "spiritual dictionary".[96] During his stay in Yeravda jail in 1929,[97] Gandhi wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita in Gujarati. The Gujarati manuscript was translated into English by Mahadev Desai, who provided an additional introduction and commentary. It was published with a Foreword by Gandhi in 1946.[98][99] Mahatma Gandhi expressed his love for the Gita in these words:

I find a solace in the Bhagavagītā that I miss even in the Sermon on the Mount. When disappointment stares me in the face and all alone I see not one ray of light, I go back to the Bhagavagītā. I find a verse here and a verse there and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming tragedies - and my life has been full of external tragedies - and if they have left no visible, no indelible scar on me, I owe it all to the teaching of Bhagavagītā.[100]

Other notable modern commentators include Sri Aurobindo, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and Swami Vivekananda, who took a syncretistic approach to the text.[101][102]

Swami Vivekananda, the follower of Sri Ramakrishna, was known for his commentaries on the four Yogas - Bhakti, Jnana, Karma and Raja Yoga. He drew from his knowledge of the Gita to expound on these Yogas. Swami Sivananda advises the aspiring Yogi to read verses from the Bhagavad Gita every day. Paramahamsa Yogananda, writer of the famous Autobiography of a Yogi, viewed the Bhagavad Gita as one of the world's most divine scriptures. A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, the founder of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, wrote a commentary on the Gita from the perspective of Gaudiya Vaishnavism. In 1965 the modern sage Maharishi Mahesh Yogi published his own commentary of the Gita and proclaimed his technique of Transcendental Meditation to be the practical procedure for experiencing the field of absolute Being described by Lord Krishna.[103]

Translations

Numerous readings and adaptations of the Bhagavad Gita have been published in many languages. In 1785 Charles Wilkins published an English translation of the Bhagavad Gita, which was the first time a Sanskrit book had been translated directly into a European language.[104] In 1808 passages from the Gita were part of the first direct translation of Sanskrit into German, appearing in a book through which Friedrich Schlegel became known as the founder of Indian philology in Germany.[105] The Gita has been translated into many other languages. Gita Press, of Gorakhpur, India, publishes the Gita in English and many Indian languages.[106] The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust publishes the Gita in more than 54 languages.[107]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Pandit, Bansi. Explore Hinduism. pp. p.27. 
  2. ↑ Hume, Robert Ernest (1959). The world's living religions. pp. p.29. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Nikhilananda, Swami. "Introduction". The Bhagavad Gita. pp. p.1. 
  4. ↑ "Bhagavan". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14.
  5. ↑ Introduction to the Bhagavad Gita
  6. ↑ Maharishi Mahesh Yogi; On The Bhagavad Gita; A New Translation and Commentary With Sanskrit Text Chapters 1 to 6, Preface p.9
  7. ↑ The "tag" found at the end of each chapter in certain editions identifies the book as Gītopanishad. The book is identified as the essence of the Upanishads in the Gītā-māhātmya 6, quoted in the introduction to Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, A.C. (1983). Bhagavad-gītā As It Is. Los Angeles: The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. http://vedabase.net/bg. .
  8. ↑ Thomas B. Coburn, Scripture" in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 52, No. 3 (Sep., 1984), pp. 435-459
  9. ↑ Tapasyananda, p. 1.
  10. ↑ Nikhilananda, Swami (1944). "Introduction". The Bhagavad Gita. Advaita Ashrama. pp. p.xxiv. 
  11. ↑ Swarupananda, Swami (1909). "FOREWORD". Srimad-Bhagavad-Gita. 
  12. ↑ Due to differences in recensions the verses of the Gita may be numbered in the full text of the Mahabharata as chapters 6.25 – 42. (see: Sastras studies) or as chapters 6.23-40 (The Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (BORI) electronic edition. Electronic text (C) Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, India, 1999.) According to the recension of the Gita commented on by Shankaracharya, the number of verses is 700, but there is evidence to show that old manuscripts had 745 verses.(Gambhiranda (1997), p. xvii.)
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Radhakrishnan, S. (2002). "Introductory Essay". The Bhagavad Gita. HarperCollins. pp. p.14-15. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Vivekananda, Swami. "Lectures and Discourses ~ Thoughts on the Gita". The Complete works of Swami Vivekananda. 4. 
  15. ↑ Juan Mascaro; Simon Brodbeck (2003). "Translator's introduction to 1962 edition". The Bhagavad Gita. Penguin Classics. pp. p.xlviii. 
  16. ↑ Zaehner, Robert Charles (1973). The Bhagavad-Gita. Oxford University Press. pp. p.7. "As with almost every major religious text in India no firm date can be assigned to the Gītā. It seems certain, however, that it was written later than the 'classical' Upanishads with the possible exception of the Maitrī which was post-Buddhistic. One would probably not be going far wrong if one dated it at some time between the fifth and the second centuries B. C.". 
  17. ↑ C. Jinarajadasa (1915). "The Bhagavad Gita". Theosophical Publishing House, Adyar, Madras. India. Retrieved on 2008-09-24. "…an analysis of the epic shows at once by differences of style and by linguistic and other peculiarities, that it was composed at different times and by different hands"
  18. ↑ For a brief review of the literature supporting this view see: Radhakrihnan, pp. 14-15.
  19. ↑ Bhagavad Gita Chapter 4, Text 1: vivasvan manave praha, manur ikshvakave 'bravit
  20. ↑ Hindu Scriptures - one example
  21. ↑ Mascaro, Juan; Simon Brodbeck. The Bhagavad Gita. pp. p.xlviii. "Scholars differ as to the date of the Bhagavad Gita; but as the roots of this great poem are in Eternity the date of its revelation in time is of little spiritual importance.". 
  22. ↑ Vivekananda, Swami. "Thoughts on the Gita". The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. Advaita Ashrama. "One thing should be especially remembered here, that there is no connection between these historical researches and our real aim, which is the knowledge that leads to the acquirement of Dharma. Even if the historicity of the whole thing is proved to be absolutely false today, it will not in the least be any loss to us. Then what is the use of so much historical research, you may ask. It has its use, because we have to get at the truth; it will not do for us to remain bound by wrong ideas born of ignorance.". 
  23. ↑ Nikhilananda, Swami (1944). Introduction. pp. p.xiii. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Rama, Swami (1985). Perennial Psychology of the Bhagavad Gita. Himalayan Institute Press. pp. p.10. 
  25. ↑ Nikhilananda, Swami (1944). Introduction. pp. p.xiv-xv. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Nikhilananda, Swami (1944). Introduction. pp. p.xvi. 
  27. ↑ Rama, Swami (1985). Perennial Psychology of the Bhagavad Gita. Himalayan Institute Press. pp. p.11. 
  28. ↑ [[Swami Rama |Rama, Swami]] (1985). Perennial Psychology of the Bhagavad Gita. Himalayan Institute Press. pp. p.12. 
  29. ↑ Nikhilananda, Swami (1944). Introduction. pp. p.vii. 
  30. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Introduction". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14. "The subject of the Bhagavad-gita entails the comprehension of five basic truths"
  31. ↑ Ramanuja's translation BG 2.12 "...you have always existed. It is not that 'all of us', I and you, shall cease to be 'in the future', i.e., beyond the present time; we shall always exist. Even as no doubt can be entertained that I, the Supreme Self and Lord of all, am eternal, likewise, you (Arjuna and all others) who are embodied selves, also should be considered eternal."
  32. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Chapter 12: Devotional Service". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14.
  33. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Chapter 3: Karma Yoga". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14.
  34. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Chapter 6: Dhyana Yoga". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14.
  35. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Chapter 2:Summary (containing jnana)". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14.
  36. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "B-Gita 8.10 Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, verse 8.10". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14. "by the strength of yoga, with an undeviating mind, engages himself in remembering the Supreme Lord in full devotion, will certainly attain to the Supreme"
  37. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Chapter 11:Universal Form". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14.
  38. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Verse 4.8". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14."to reestablish the principles of religion, I Myself appear"
  39. ↑ Gandhi, Mohandas K., The Bhagavad Gita According to Gandhi Berkeley Hills Books, Berkeley 2000
  40. ↑ Fischer, Louis: Gandhi: His Life and Message to the World Mentor, New York 1954, pp. 15-16
  41. ↑ Vivekananda, Swami. "Sayings and Utterances". The Complete works of Swami Vivekananda. 5. pp. p.416. 
  42. ↑ Nikhilananda, Swami (1944). "Introduction". The Bhagavad Gita. pp. p.2. 
  43. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Verse 6.47". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14."And of all yogis, the one with great faith who always abides in Me, thinks of Me within himself, and renders transcendental loving service to Me -- he is the most intimately united with Me in yoga and is the highest of all. That is My opinion."
  44. ↑ Gambhirananda (1998), p. 16.
  45. ↑ Gambhiranda (1997), p. xx.
  46. ↑ verse 47, Chapter 2-Samkhya theory and Yoga practise, The Bhagavadgita - Radhakrishnan
  47. ↑ verse 48, Chapter 2-Samkhya theory and Yoga practise, The Bhagavadgita - Radhakrishnan
  48. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Verse 5.11". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14.
  49. ↑ Verses 62,63, chapter 2- Samkhya theory and Yoga practise', The Bhagavadgita - Radhakrishnan'
  50. ↑ Cornille, Catherine, ed., 2006. Song Divine: Christian Commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita." Leuven: Peeters. p. 2.
  51. ↑ For quotation and summarizing bhakti as "a mode of worship which consists of unceasing and loving remembrance of God" see: Sampatkumaran, p. xxiii.
  52. ↑ Radhakrishan(1970), ninth edition, Blackie and son India Ltd., p.211, Verse 6.47
  53. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Verse 8.15". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14.
  54. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Verse 12.6". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14.
  55. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Verse 14.26". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14.
  56. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Verse 18.65". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14.
  57. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Verse 18.66". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14.
  58. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Verse 13.31". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14.
  59. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Verse 13.35". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14.
  60. ↑ For example, the first line of the Bhagavad Gita is dhṛtarāşţra uvāca, which occurs immediately after the last line of the preceding chapter in the full Sanskrit text of the Mahabharata: | 6.23.1 dhṛtarāşţra uvāca | 6.23.1a dharmakşetre kurukṣetre samavetā yuyutsavaḥ || Source: Electronic text (C) Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, India, 1999. Electronic edition downloaded from: [1].
  61. ↑ Chidbhavananda, p. 33.
  62. ↑ Sivananda, p. 3.
  63. ↑ Tapasyananda, p. 13
  64. ↑ Radhakrishnan, p. 79.
  65. ↑ Zaehner, passim.
  66. ↑ Sivananda, p. xvii.
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 67.2 Sargeant, p. xix.
  68. ↑ A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. "Bhaktivedanta VedaBase: Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Chapter 6: Dhyana-yoga". Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network (ISKCON). Retrieved on 2008-01-14.
  69. ↑ Autobiography of a Yogi, by Paramhansa Yogananda - Crystal Clarity: Resources to Relax, Uplift and Inspire
  70. ↑ Radhakrishnan, S (1974). "XI. The Lord's Transfiguration". The Bhagavad Gita. HarperCollins. pp. p.289. 
  71. ↑ Rosen, Steven; Graham M. Schweig. "The Bhagavad-Gita and the life of Lord Krishna". Essential Hinduism. pp. p.121. 
  72. ↑ Isherwood, Christopher (1964). "The Story Begins". Ramakrishna and his Disciples. pp. p.9. 
  73. ↑ Vivekananda, Swami. "Thoughts on the Gita". The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. 4. Advaita Ashrama. 
  74. ↑ Gandhi, M.K. (1933). "Introduction". The Gita According to Gandhi. http://www.wikilivres.info/wiki/The_Gita_According_to_Gandhi/Introduction. 
  75. ↑ Sacred Books of the East By F. Max Müller p.11 Published 1980 (Not first edition) Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 8120810961 [2]
  76. ↑ James A. Hijiya, "The Gita of Robert Oppenheimer" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 144, no. 2 (June 2000). [3]
  77. ↑ See Robert_Oppenheimer#Trinity for other refs
  78. ↑ "Karma Capitalism". Business Week. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. (2006-10-30). Retrieved on 2008-01-12.
  79. ↑ Singh pp.54-55
  80. ↑ For Shankara's commentary falling within the Vedanta school of tradition, see: Flood (1996), p. 124.
  81. ↑ Dating for Shankara as 788-820 AD is from: Sargeant, p. xix.
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 82.2 Zaehner, p. 3.
  83. ↑ Gambhirananda (1997), p. xviii.
  84. ↑ Flood (1996), p. 240.
  85. ↑ For classification of Ramanujacharya's commentary as within the Vedanta school see: Flood (1996), p. 124.
  86. ↑ Gambhirananda (1997), p. xix.
  87. ↑ Sampatkumaran, p. xx.
  88. ↑ Dating of 1199-1276 for Madhva is from: Gambhirananda (1997), p. xix.
  89. ↑ For classification of Madhva's commentary as within the Vedanta school see: Flood (1996), p. 124.
  90. ↑ For classification of Abhinavagupta's commentary on the Gita as within the Shaiva tradition see: Flood (1996), p. 124.
  91. ↑ Singh p.55
  92. ↑ For B. G. Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi as notable commentators see: Gambhiranda (1997), p. xix.
  93. ↑ For notability of the commentaries by B. G. Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi and their use to inspire the independence movement see: Sargeant, p. xix.
  94. ↑ Stevenson, Robert W., "Tilak and the Bhagavadgita's Doctrine of Karmayoga", in: Minor, p. 44.
  95. ↑ Stevenson, Robert W., "Tilak and the Bhagavadgita's Doctrine of Karmayoga", in: Minor, p. 49.
  96. ↑ Jordens, J. T. F., "Gandhi and the Bhagavadgita", in: Minor, p. 88.
  97. ↑ For composition during stay in Yeravda jail in 1929, see: Jordens, J. T. F., "Gandhi and the Bhagavadgita", in: Minor, p. 88.
  98. ↑ Desai, Mahadev. The Gospel of Selfless Action, or, The Gita According To Gandhi. (Navajivan Publishing House: Ahmedabad: First Edition 1946). Other editions: 1948, 1951, 1956.
  99. ↑ A shorter edition, omitting the bulk of Desai's additional commentary, has been published as: Anasaktiyoga: The Gospel of Selfless Action. Jim Rankin, editor. The author is listed as M.K. Gandhi; Mahadev Desai, translator. (Dry Bones Press, San Francisco, 1998) ISBN 1-883938-47-3.
  100. ↑ Quotation from M. K. Gandhi. Young India. (1925), pp. 1078-1079, is cited from Radhakrishnan, front matter.
  101. ↑ For Sri Aurobindo, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and Swami Vivekananda as notable commentators see: Sargeant, p. xix.
  102. ↑ For Sri Aurobindo as notable commentators, see: Gambhiranda (1997), p. xix.
  103. ↑ Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, On The Bhagavad Gita; A Translation and Commentary With Sanskrit Text Chapters 1 to 6, Chapter Two, Verse 42, p. 129 and pp. 470-472
  104. ↑ Winternitz, Volume 1, p. 11.
  105. ↑ What had previously been known of Indian literature in Germany had been translated from the English. Winternitz, Volume 1, p. 15.
  106. ↑ "Gita Press website". Gita Press. Retrieved on 2008-03-24.
  107. ↑ "Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, chart of publications" (PDF). The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Retrieved on 2008-03-24.

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