Arithmetic

Arithmetic tables for children, Lausanne, 1835

Arithmetic or arithmetics (from the Greek word αριθμός = number) is the oldest and most elementary branch of mathematics, used by almost everyone, for tasks ranging from simple day-to-day counting to advanced science and business calculations. In common usage, the word refers to a branch of (or the forerunner of) mathematics which records elementary properties of certain operations on numbers. Professional mathematicians sometimes use the term (higher) arithmetic[1] when referring to number theory, but this should not be confused with elementary arithmetic.

Contents

History

The prehistory of arithmetic is limited to a very small number of small artifacts indicating a clear conception of addition and subtraction, the best-known being the Ishango bone from central Africa, dating from somewhere between 18,000 and 20,000 BC.

It is clear that the Babylonians had solid knowledge of almost all aspects of elementary arithmetic by 1800 BC, although historians can only guess at the methods utilized to generate the arithmetical results - as shown, for instance, in the clay tablet Plimpton 322, which appears to be a list of Pythagorean triples, but with no workings to show how the list was originally produced. Likewise, the Egyptian Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (dating from c. 1650 BC, though evidently a copy of an older text from c. 1850 BC) shows evidence of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division being used within a unit fraction system.

Nicomachus (c. AD60 - c. AD120) summarised the philosophical Pythagorean approach to numbers, and their relationships to each other, in his Introduction to Arithmetic. At this time, basic arithmetical operations were highly complicated affairs; it was the method known as the "Method of the Indians" (Latin "Modus Indorum") that became the arithmetic that we know today. Indian arithmetic was much simpler than Greek arithmetic due to the simplicity of the Indian number system, which had a zero and place-value notation. The 7th century Syriac bishop Severus Sebhokt mentioned this method with admiration, stating however that the Method of the Indians was beyond description. The Arabs learned this new method and called it hesab. Fibonacci (also known as Leonardo of Pisa) introduced the "Method of the Indians" to Europe in 1202. In his book "Liber Abaci", Fibonacci says that, compared with this new method, all other methods had been mistakes. In the Middle Ages, arithmetic was one of the seven liberal arts taught in universities.

Modern algorithms for arithmetic (both for hand and electronic computation) were made possible by the introduction of Arabic numerals and decimal place notation for numbers. Arabic numeral based arithmetic was developed by the great Indian mathematicians Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta and Bhāskara I. Aryabhatta tried different place value notations and Brahmagupta added zero to the Indian number system. Brahmagupta developed modern multiplication, division, addition and subtraction based on Arabic numerals. Although it is now considered elementary, its simplicity is the culmination of thousands of years of mathematical development. By contrast, the ancient mathematician Archimedes devoted an entire work, The Sand Reckoner, to devising a notation for a certain large integer. The flourishing of algebra in the medieval Islamic world and in Renaissance Europe was an outgrowth of the enormous simplification of computation through decimal notation.

Decimal arithmetic

Decimal notation constructs all real numbers from the basic digits, the first ten non-negative integers 0,1,2,...,9. A decimal numeral consists of a sequence of these basic digits, with the "denomination" of each digit depending on its position with respect to the decimal point: for example, 507.36 denotes 5 hundreds (102), plus 0 tens (101), plus 7 units (100), plus 3 tenths (10-1) plus 6 hundredths (10-2). An essential part of this notation (and a major stumbling block in achieving it) was conceiving of zero as a number comparable to the other basic digits.

Algorism comprises all of the rules of performing arithmetic computations using a decimal system for representing numbers in which numbers written using ten symbols having the values 0 through 9 are combined using a place-value system (positional notation), where each symbol has ten times the weight of the one to its right. This notation allows the addition of arbitrary numbers by adding the digits in each place, which is accomplished with a 10 x 10 addition table. (A sum of digits which exceeds 9 must have its 10-digit carried to the next place leftward.) One can make a similar algorithm for multiplying arbitrary numbers because the set of denominations {...,10²,10,1,10-1,...} is closed under multiplication. Subtraction and division are achieved by similar, though more complicated algorithms.

Arithmetic operations

The traditional arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, although more advanced operations (such as manipulations of percentages, square root, exponentiation, and logarithmic functions) are also sometimes included in this subject. Arithmetic is performed according to an order of operations. Any set of objects upon which all four operations of arithmetic can be performed (except division by zero), and wherein these four operations obey the usual laws, is called a field.

Addition (+)

Main article: Addition

Addition is the basic operation of arithmetic. In its simplest form, addition combines two numbers, the addends or terms, into a single number, the sum of the page.

Adding more than two numbers can be viewed as repeated addition; this procedure is known as summation and includes ways to add infinitely many numbers in an infinite series; repeated addition of the number one is the most basic form of counting.

Addition is commutative and associative so the order in which the terms are added does not matter. The identity element of addition (the additive identity) is 0, that is, adding zero to any number will yield that same number. Also, the inverse element of addition (the additive inverse) is the opposite of any number, that is, adding the opposite of any number to the number itself will yield the additive identity, 0. For example, the opposite of 7 is (-7), so 7 + (-7) = 0. Addition can be given geometrically as follows.

If a and b are the lengths of two sticks, then if we place the sticks one after the other, the length of the stick thus formed will be a+b

Subtraction (−)

Main article: Subtraction

Subtraction is essentially the opposite of addition. Subtraction finds the difference between two numbers, the minuend minus the subtrahend. If the minuend is larger than the subtrahend, the difference will be positive; if the minuend is smaller than the subtrahend, the difference will be negative; and if they are equal, the difference will be zero.

Subtraction is neither commutative nor associative. For that reason, it is often helpful to look at subtraction as addition of the minuend and the opposite of the subtrahend, that is a − b = a + (−b). When written as a sum, all the properties of addition hold.

Multiplication (×, ·, or *)

Main article: Multiplication

Multiplication is the second basic operation of arithmetic. Multiplication also combines two numbers into a single number, the product. The two original numbers are called the multiplier and the multiplicand, sometimes both simply called factors.

Multiplication is best viewed as a scaling operation. If the real numbers are imagined as lying in a line, multiplication by a number, say x, greater than 1 is the same as stretching everything away from zero uniformly, in such a way that the number 1 itself is stretched to where x was. Similarly, multiplying by a number less than 1 can be imagined as squeezing towards zero. (Again, in such a way that 1 goes to the multiplicand.)

Multiplication is commutative and associative; further it is distributive over addition and subtraction. The multiplicative identity is 1, that is, multiplying any number by 1 will yield that same number. Also, the multiplicative inverse is the reciprocal of any number, that is, multiplying the reciprocal of any number by the number itself will yield the multiplicative identity.

Division (÷ or /)

Main article: Division (mathematics)

Division is essentially the opposite of multiplication. Division finds the quotient of two numbers, the dividend divided by the divisor. Any dividend divided by zero is undefined. For positive numbers, if the dividend is larger than the divisor, the quotient will be greater than one, otherwise it will be less than one (a similar rule applies for negative numbers). The quotient multiplied by the divisor always yields the dividend.

Division is neither commutative nor associative. As it is helpful to look at subtraction as addition, it is helpful to look at division as multiplication of the dividend times the reciprocal of the divisor, that is a ÷ b = a × 1⁄b. When written as a product, it will obey all the properties of multiplication.

Examples

Multiplication table

× 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 63 66 69 72 75
4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 100
5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125
6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 102 108 114 120 126 132 138 144 150
7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91 98 105 112 119 126 133 140 147 154 161 168 175
8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 104 112 120 128 136 144 152 160 168 176 184 192 200
9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108 117 126 135 144 153 162 171 180 189 198 207 216 225
10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
11 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110 121 132 143 154 165 176 187 198 209 220 231 242 253 264 275
12 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 192 204 216 228 240 252 264 276 288 300
13 13 26 39 52 65 78 91 104 117 130 143 156 169 182 195 208 221 234 247 260 273 286 299 312 325
14 14 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 126 140 154 168 182 196 210 224 238 252 266 280 294 308 322 336 350
15 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240 255 270 285 300 315 330 345 360 375
16 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 176 192 208 224 240 256 272 288 304 320 336 352 368 384 400
17 17 34 51 68 85 102 119 136 153 170 187 204 221 238 255 272 289 306 323 340 357 374 391 408 425
18 18 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288 306 324 342 360 378 396 414 432 450
19 19 38 57 76 95 114 133 152 171 190 209 228 247 266 285 304 323 342 361 380 399 418 437 456 475
20 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500
21 21 42 63 84 105 126 147 168 189 210 231 252 273 294 315 336 357 378 399 420 441 462 483 504 525
22 22 44 66 88 110 132 154 176 198 220 242 264 286 308 330 352 374 396 418 440 462 484 506 528 550
23 23 46 69 92 115 138 161 184 207 230 253 276 299 322 345 368 391 414 437 460 483 506 529 552 575
24 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240 264 288 312 336 360 384 408 432 456 480 504 528 552 576 600
25 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 525 550 575 600 625

Number theory

Main article: Number theory

The term arithmetic is also used to refer to number theory. This includes the properties of integers related to primality, divisibility, and the solution of equations by integers, as well as modern research which is an outgrowth of this study. It is in this context that one runs across the fundamental theorem of arithmetic and arithmetic functions. A Course in Arithmetic by Serre reflects this usage, as do such phrases as first order arithmetic or arithmetical algebraic geometry. Number theory is also referred to as 'the higher arithmetic', as in the title of H. Davenport's book on the subject.

Arithmetic in education

Primary education in mathematics often places a strong focus on algorithms for the arithmetic of natural numbers, integers, rational numbers (vulgar fractions), and real numbers (using the decimal place-value system). This study is sometimes known as algorism.

The difficulty and unmotivated appearance of these algorithms has long led educators to question this curriculum, advocating the early teaching of more central and intuitive mathematical ideas. One notable movement in this direction was the New Math of the 1960s and '70s, which attempted to teach arithmetic in the spirit of axiomatic development from set theory, an echo of the prevailing trend in higher mathematics.[2]

Since the introduction of the electronic calculator, which can perform the algorithms far more efficiently than humans, an influential school of educators has argued that mechanical mastery of the standard arithmetic algorithms is no longer necessary. In their view, the first years of school mathematics could be more profitably spent on understanding higher-level ideas about what numbers are used for and relationships among number, quantity, measurement, and so on. However, most research mathematicians still consider mastery of the manual algorithms to be a necessary foundation for the study of algebra and computer science. This controversy was central to the "Math Wars" over California's primary school curriculum in the 1990s, and continues today.[3]

Many mathematics texts for K–12 instruction were developed, funded by grants from the United States National Science Foundation based on standards created by the NCTM and given high ratings by United States Department of Education, though condemned by many mathematicians. Some widely adopted texts such as TERC were based on the spirit of research papers which found that instruction of basic arithmetic was harmful to mathematical understanding. Rather than teaching any traditional method of arithmetic, teachers are instructed to instead guide students to invent their own (some critics claim inefficient) methods, instead using such techniques as skip counting, and the heavy use of manipulatives, scissors and paste, and even singing rather than multiplication tables or long division. Although such texts were designed to be a complete curricula, in the face of intense protest and criticism, many districts have chosen to circumvent the intent of such radical approaches by supplementing with traditional texts. Other districts have since adopted traditional mathematics texts and discarded such reform-based approaches as misguided failures.

See also

Lists

Related topics

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Davenport, Harold (1999). The Higher Arithmetic: An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers (7th ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-63446-6.
  2. ↑ Mathematically Correct: Glossary of Terms
  3. ↑ Education World - Curriculum: MATH WARS!

References

  • Cunnington, Susan. The story of arithmetic, a short history of its origin and development. Swan Sonnenschein, London, 1904.
  • Dickson, Leonard Eugene. History of the theory of numbers. Three volumes. Reprints: Carnegie Institute of Washington, Washington, 1932. Chelsea, New York, 1952, 1966.
  • Leonhard Euler, Elements of Algebra Tarquin Press, 2007
  • Fine, Henry Burchard (1858–1928). The number system of algebra treated theoretically and historically. Leach, Shewell & Sanborn, Boston, 1891.
  • Karpinski, Louis Charles (1878–1956). The history of arithmetic. Rand McNally, Chicago, 1925. Reprint: Russell & Russell, New York, 1965.
  • Ore, Øystein. Number theory and its history. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1948.
  • Weil, Andre. Number theory: an approach through history. Birkhauser, Boston, 1984. Reviewed: Math. Rev. 85c:01004.

External links

Major fields of mathematics