World War I casualties

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British and German wounded, Bernafay Wood, 19 July 1916.
British and German wounded, Bernafay Wood, 19 July 1916.

The number of World War I casualties, both military and civilian, was over 40 million — 20 million deaths and 21 million wounded. This includes 9.7 million military deaths and about 10 million civilian deaths. The Entente Powers (also known as the Allies) lost more than 5 million soldiers and the Central Powers about 4 million.

Contents

[edit] Classification of Casualty Statistics

Estimates for World War I casualty numbers vary to a great extent.[29] Military casualty statistics listed here include combat related deaths as well as losses caused by accidents, disease and prisoner of war deaths. The table lists total deaths; the footnotes give a breakout between combat and non-combat losses.
Most civilian deaths during World War I were due to war related famine and disease. Civilian deaths due to the Spanish flu have been excluded from these figures, whenever possible. Furthermore, estimates of civilian deaths include the Armenian Genocide, and it is debated to which degree - or if at all - this event should be included.
The data listed here is from official sources, whenever available. These sources are cited below.

[edit] Casualties by country

Pie chart showing deaths by alliance and military/civilian. Most of the civilian deaths were due to war related famine.
Pie chart showing deaths by alliance and military/civilian. Most of the civilian deaths were due to war related famine.
Pie chart showing military deaths of the Allied Forces.
Pie chart showing military deaths of the Allied Forces.
Pie chart showing military deaths of the Central Powers.
Pie chart showing military deaths of the Central Powers.
Entente Powers Population Millions Military Deaths Civilian Deaths Total Deaths Military Wounded
Flag of Australia Australia[1] 4.5 61,928 61,928 152,171
Flag of Belgium Belgium[2] 7.4 42,987 62,000 104,987 44,686
Flag of Canada Canada[3] 7.2 64,944 2,000 66,944 149,732
Flag of France France[4] 39.6 1,397,800 300,000 1,697,800 4,266,000
Flag of Greece Greece[5] 4.8 26,000 150,000 176,000 21,000
Flag of British Raj British Raj[6] 315.1 74,187 74,187 69,214
Flag of Italy Italy[7] 35.6 651,010 589,000 1,240,010 953,886
Flag of Japan Japan[8] 53.6 415 415 907
Flag of Montenegro Montenegro[9] .5 3,000 3,000 10,000
Flag of New Zealand New Zealand[10] 1.1 18,050 18,050 41,317
Flag of Dominion of Newfoundland Newfoundland[11] .2 1,204 1,204 2,314
Flag of Portugal Portugal[12] 6.0 7,222 82,000 89,222 13,751
Flag of Romania Romania[13] 7.5 250,000 430,000 680,000 120,000
Flag of Russia Russian Empire[14] 158.9 1,811,000 1,500,000 3,311,000 4,950,000
Flag of Kingdom of Serbia Kingdom of Serbia[15] 4.5 275,000 450,000 725,000 133,148
Flag of South Africa South Africa[16] 6.0 9,463 9,463 12,029
Flag of the United Kingdom United Kingdom[17] 45.4 885,138 109,000 994,138 1,663,435
Flag of the United States United States[18] 92.0 116,708 757 117,465 205,690
Total (Entente Powers) 789.9 5,696,056 3,674,757 10,353,813 12,809,280
Central Powers Population Millions Military Deaths Civilian Deaths Total Deaths Military Wounded
Flag of Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary[19] 51.4 1,100,000 467,000 1,567,000 3,620,000
Flag of Bulgaria Bulgaria[20] 5.5 87,500 100,000 187,500 152,390
Flag of German Empire German Empire[21] 64.9 2,036,897 426,000 2,462,897 4,247,143
Ottoman flag Ottoman Empire[22] 21.3 800,000 4,200,000 5,000,000 400,000
Total (Central Powers) 143.1 4,024,397 5,191,000 9,415,397 8,419,533
Neutral nations
Flag of Denmark Denmark[23] 2.7 722 722
Flag of Norway Norway[24] 2.4 - 1,892 1,892
Flag of Sweden Sweden[25] 5.6 - 877 877
Grand Total 941.0 9,720,453 8,869,248 19,772,701 21,228,813

[edit] Table sources

Graves of French soldiers who died on the Ypres Salient, Ypres Necropole National, Ieper, Belgium.
Graves of French soldiers who died on the Ypres Salient, Ypres Necropole National, Ieper, Belgium.
The India Gate commemorates the Indian soldiers who died during World War I.
The India Gate commemorates the Indian soldiers who died during World War I.

The main sources used for military and civilian deaths (unless stated otherwise in the footnotes below) are as follows:

  • The Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2006-2007 is the source of the military dead for the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, and India. The war dead totals listed in the report are based on the research by the CWGC to identify and commemorate Commonwealth war dead. The totals include those killed or missing in action and died of wounds as well as deaths due to disease, accidents; deaths of prisoners of war, military deaths outside of combat theaters and war related deaths during 1919-1921. The report is available online at [16].
  • Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire During the Great War 1914-1920, The War Office March 1922 [11]-This report lists the deaths of 908,371 soldiers killed or missing in action; died of wounds; and POW deaths in the combat theaters from to 1914-18. The figures from the War Office report for the UK and Dominion nations are listed in the footnotes[11,237].The losses of Bulgaria and Portugal were also listed in the War Office report.[11,352-354]
  • Casualties and Medical Statistics, 1931,[21] the final volume of the Official Medical History of the War, gives a breakout of British Empire Army losses by cause of death. Total losses in combat theaters from 1914-1918 were 876,084, which included 418,361 killed, 167,172 died of wounds, 113,173 died of disease or injury, 161,046 missing and presumed dead and 16,332 prisoner of war deaths . These losses were not broken out for the UK and each Dominion.[21,12].
  • Huber Michel,La Population de la France pendant la guerre, Paris 1931, [12]This study published by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace lists official data for war related military deaths and missing of France and its colonies.
  • Mortara, Giorgo. La Salute pubblica in Italia durante e dopo la Guerra, New Haven: Yale University Press 1925. [20] The official government Italian statistics on war dead are listed here. A brief summary of data from this report can be found online at -[17](go to Vol 13, No. 15).
  • Urlanis, Boris Wars and Population, Moscow, 1971, Lists the military dead of Russia, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro.[6,209]. Estimated combat related casualties; killed and missing in action or died of wounds are detailed for each nation. These figures are listed in the footnotes.[6,85]
  • Heeres-Sanitätsinspektion im Reichskriegsministeriums, Sanitätsbericht über das deutsche Heer, (Deutsches Feld- und Besatzungsheer), im Weltkriege 1914-1918, Volume 3, Sec. 1, Berlin 1934.[8]- The official German Army medical war history listed German losses.
  • Grebler, Leo and Winkler, Wilhelm The Cost of the World War to Germany and Austria-Hungary, Yale University Press, 1940, -This study published by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace details the losses of Austria-Hungary and Germany in the war,[17]
  • Erickson, Edward J. Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War, Greenwood 2001, ISBN 0313315167. The data published here for casualties is from official Ottoman sources[14,211]
  • Hersch, Liebmann, La mortalité causée par la guerre mondiale, Metron- The International Review of Statistics, 1927, Vol 7. No 1. Detailed the demographic impact of the war on France, the UK, Italy, Belgium, Portugal, Serbia, Romania and Greece.( This article is available for purchase from Metron [18])

The main source for military wounded (unless stated otherwise in the footnotes below) is:

  • Tucker, Spencer C. ed. The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia, Garland Publishing, New York, 1996.[4,172]

The source of population data is.

  • Haythornthwaite, Philip J., The World War One Source Book Arms and Armour, 1993, 412 pages, ISBN 1854091026.

[edit] Footnotes

  1. ^ Australia
    Included in total are 55,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[6,85]-.
    The Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2006-2007 is the source of total military dead. The 'Debt of Honour Register' from the Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists the 1.7m men and women of the Commonwealth forces who died during the two world wars. [1]
    Totals include 2,005 military deaths during 1919-21[15]-. The 1922 War Office report listed 59,330 Army war dead[11,237].
  2. ^ Belgium
    Official Belgian government figures for military losses were 26,338 killed, died of wounds or accidents; 14,029 died of disease or missing. Plus an additional 2,620 soldiers killed in the African campaign.[28,100]
    The estimate by UK War Office in 1922 was 13,716 killed and 24,456 missing up until Nov.11, 1918. "These figures are approximate only, the records being incomplete." [11,352]. By US War Dept in 1919: 102,000 Battle Deaths[25,139]
    Civilian deaths exceeded the prewar level by 92,000. 55,000 caused by food shortages and the Spanish Flu(30,000)[23,59-62]Prof. John Horne estimates the deaths of 6,500 Belgian and French civilians killed in German reprisals[30]
  3. ^ Canada
    Included in total are 53,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds.[6,85]
    The Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2006-2007 is the source of total military dead.
    Totals include 3,789 military deaths during 1919-21 and 150 Merchant Navy deaths[15]-. CANADIAN VIRTUAL WAR MEMORIAL contains a registry of information about the graves and memorials of more than 116,000 Canadians and Newfoundlanders who served valiantly and gave their lives for their country. [2]The losses of Newfoundland are listed separately on this table. The 1922 War Office report listed 56,639 Army war dead[11,237]. Civilian deaths were due to the Halifax Explosion
  4. ^ France
    Included in total are 1,186,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[6,85].
    The figures of total military dead are from a study published by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in 1931[12]- Totals include the deaths of 71,100 French colonial troops, 4,600 foreign nationals and war related military deaths of 28,600 from 11/11/18 to 6/1/1919.[12,414] The names of the Soldiers who died for France during World War I are listed online at [3]
    Luxembourg was occupied by Germany during the war. 3,700 Luxembourg citizens served in the French armed forces, over 2,000 gave their lives in the war. [4] They are commerated at the Gëlle Fra in Luxembourg.
    The French Armenian Legion served as part of the French Armed forces during the war.
    The Czechoslovak Legions included a contigent in the French Army.
    The ethnic Polish Blue Army was raised in France during the war.
    Other estimates of French casualties are as follows:
    By UK War Office in 1922, 1,385,300 dead and missing, including 58,000 colonial soldiers[11,352]-
    By US War Dept in 1919: Battle deaths-1,385,000[25,139]
    Civilian deaths exceeded the prewar level by 500,000. 300,000 caused by food shortages and the Spanish Flu(197,000)[23,30-47], Civilian dead include 1,509 merchant sailors.[12,314] and 3,357 killed in air attacks and long range artillery bombardments[12,312-13]
  5. ^ Greece
    Jean Bujac in a campaign history of the Greek Army in World War One listed 8,365 combat related deaths and 3,255 missing[13,339], The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated total dead of 26,000 including 15,000 military deaths due disease[6,160].
    Other estimates of Greek casualties are as follows:
    By UK War Office in 1922: Killed/died wounds 5,000; prisoners and missing 1,000[11,353]-
    By US War Dept in 1919: Battle deaths 7,000[25]
    Civilian deaths exceeded the prewar level by 150,000, caused by food shortages and the Spanish Flu[23,80-81]
  6. ^ British Raj
    The British colony included present day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.
    Included in total are 27,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[6,85].
    The Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2006-2007 is the source of total military dead. The 'Debt of Honour Register' from the Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists the 1.7m men and women of the Commonwealth forces who died during the two world wars. [5]
    Totals include 15,069 military deaths during 1919-21 and 1,841 Merchant Navy dead[15]. The 1922 War Office report listed 64,454 Army war dead(including 2,393 British solders serving with the Indian forces)[11,237].
  7. ^ Italy
    Included in total are 433,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[6,85]
    Figures of total military dead are from a 1925 Italian report using official data[20].
    Other estimates of Italian casualties are as follows:
    By UK War Office in 1922 Dead 460,000[11,352]-
    By US War Dept in 1919: Battle deaths 364,000 [25,139]
    Civilian deaths exceeded the prewar level by 1,021,000. 589,000 caused by food shortages and the Spanish Flu(432,000)[23,52-59], civilian deaths included 1,107 in air and sea bombardment[20,62-66].
  8. ^ Japan
    War dead figure is from a 1991 history of the Japanese Army[19,111]. However, Michael Clodfelter reported the official toll was put at 300 KIA and noted that "A more reliable count of total Japanese military deaths from all causes lists 1,344 fatalities."[10,483].
  9. ^ Montenegro
    Michael Clodfelter lists 3,000 battle deaths and 7,000 missing and POW.[10,483]. However, the Yugoslav government in 1924 listed 13,325 military war dead from Montenegro [6,62-63].
  10. ^ New Zealand
    Included in total are 14,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[6,85].
    The Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2006-2007 is the source of total military dead. The 'Debt of Honour Register' from the Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists the 1.7m men and women of the Commonwealth forces who died during the two world wars. [6]
    Totals include 702 military deaths during 1919-21[15]. The 1922 War Office report listed 16,711 Army war dead[11,237].
  11. ^ Newfoundland
    Newfoundland was a dominion at the time, and not part of Canada. The 'Debt of Honour Register' from the Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists the 1.7m men and women of the Commonwealth forces who died during the two world wars. [7]The 1922 War Office report listed 1,204 Army war dead[11,237]
  12. ^ Portugal
    Figures reported by UK War Dept. include the following: killed and died of other causes up until Jan.1, 1920; 1,689 in France and 5,333 in Africa. Figures do not include an additional 12,318 listed as missing and POW[11,354].
    Another estimate of Portuguese casualties was as follows: By US War Dept in 1919: Battle deaths 2,000 [25,139]
    Civilian deaths exceeded the prewar level by 220,000, 82,000 caused by food shortages and the Spanish Flu(138,000)[23,61-64]
  13. ^ Romania
    Included in total are 177,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[6,85].
    The statistic of 250,000 military dead is "The figure reported by the Rumanian Government in reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office"[6,64].
    Other estimates of Romanian casualties are as follows:
    By UK War Office in 1922: 335,706 Killed and missing [11,353]-
    By US War Dept in 1919: Battle deaths 100,000[25,139]
    Civilian deaths exceeded the prewar level by 430,000, caused by food shortages, epidemics and the Spanish Flu[23,76-80]
  14. ^ Russian Empire
    Included in total are 1,451,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[6,85]
    The estimate of total Russian military and civilian losses was made by the Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis.[6,46-57].
    Other estimates of Russian casualties are as follows:
    By UK War Office in 1922: Killed 1,700,000[11,353]-
    By US War Dept in 1919: Battle deaths 1,700,000 [25,139]
    Civilian deaths from 1914-1917 exceeded the prewar level by 1,500,000 due to famine and disease [6,268]
  15. ^ Kingdom of Serbia
    Included in total are 165,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[6,85].
    The estimate of total combined Serbian and Montenegrin military losses of 278,000 was made by the Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis[6,62-64]
    Other estimates of Serbian casualties are as follows:
    By Yugoslav government in 1924: Killed 365,164 [6,62-63].
    By UK War Office in 1922: Killed 45,000, missing 82,535[11,353]-
    By US War Dept in 1919:(including Montenegro): Battle deaths: 125,000[25,139]
    Civilian deaths exceeded the prewar level by 450,000, due to food shortages, epidemics and the Spanish Flu[23,65-76]
  16. ^ South Africa
    Included in total are 5,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[6,85].
    The Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2006-2007 is the source of total military dead. The 'Debt of Honour Register' from the Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists the 1.7m men and women of the Commonwealth forces who died during the two world wars. [8]
    Totals include 380 military deaths during 1919-21[15]. The 1922 War Office report listed 7,121 Army war dead[11,237].
  17. ^ UK and Colonies
    Included in total are 624,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[6,85].
    The Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2006-2007 is the source of total military dead. The 'Debt of Honour Register' from the Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists the 1.7m men and women of the Commonwealth forces who died during the two world wars. [9]
    Military dead total includes 34,663 deaths during 1919-21 and 13,632 Merchant Navy deaths[15].
    The losses of Newfoundland are listed separately on this table.
    The 1922 War Office report listed 702,410 war dead for the UK[11,237], 507 from "other colonies"[11,237] including the Royal Navy (32,287)[11,339]. Merchant Navy war dead of 14,661 were listed separately [11,339];
    The official "final and corrected" figures for British Army losses up until Sept. 30, 1919 were 573,507 Killed(including died from wounds and died of other causes); 99,868 missing and presumed dead; Total 673,375.[27,PartIV]
    Civilian deaths exceeded the prewar level by 292,000. 109,000 due to food shortages and the Spanish Flu(183,577)[23,47-61]
    The 1922 War Office report detailed the deaths of 1,260 civilians and 310 military personnel due to air and sea bombardment of the UK.[11,674-678]. Losses at sea were 908 UK civilians and 63 fisherman killed by U-Boat attacks[18,78]
  18. ^ United States
    Official military war deaths listed by the US Dept. of Defense for the period ending Dec. 31, 1918 are 116,516; which includes 53,402 battle deaths and 63,114 other deaths.[10], The US Coast Guard lost an additional 192 dead [10,481].
    United States estimated civilian losses include 128 killed on the RMS Lusitania as well as 629 crewmen killed on merchant ships, details given at United States Merchant Marine website[11].
  19. ^ Austria-Hungary
    Included in total are 900,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[6,85].
    The figures of total estimated military dead are from a study published by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in 1940, based on analysis of Austro-Hungarian War Dept. data.[17,179]
    Other estimates of Austro-Hungarian casualties are as follows:
    By Austrian Ministry of Defense in 1938: Military dead 1,016,200[26, VII, Beilage 37]
    By UK War Office in 1922: Dead 1,200,00[11,357]-
    By US War Dept in 1919: Battle deaths 800,000[25,139]
    Civilian deaths are those in excess of the pre war level, the primary cause being famine and the Spanish flu.[17,179]-
  20. ^ Bulgaria
    Included in total are 62,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[6,85].
    The data reported by the Bulgarian War Office was 48,917 killed, 13,198 died of wounds, 888 accidentally killed, 24,497 died of disease, "losses during the retreat from sickness and privations were much greater than the figures they possess".[11,354].
    Another estimate of Bulgarian casualties was as follows: By US War Dept in 1919: Battle deaths 100,000 [25,139]
    Civilian deaths exceeded the prewar level by 100,000 due to food shortages and the Spanish Flu [6,268].
  21. ^ German Empire
    Included in total are 1,796,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds[6,85].
    The official German medical war history lists the following confirmed military dead from all causes: Army 1,900,876, Navy 34,836 and Colonial troops 1,185. There were an additional estimated 100,000 missing and presumed dead. Total dead 2,036,897. [8,7-14]-
    Other estimates of German casualties are as follows:
    By UK War Office in 1922: Killed 1,808,545 exclusive of 14.000 African conscripts killed during the war.[11,355]-
    By US War Dept in 1919: Battle deaths 1,600,000[25,139]
    Civilian deaths are those in excess of the pre war level, the primary cause being famine 424,000 and the Spanish flu(200,000).The figures of civilian war related deaths are from a study published by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in 1940, based on analysis of German government data.[17,78] 720 German civilians were killed by air attacks [11,678].
  22. ^ Ottoman Empire
    Total Ottoman losses were approximately 5 million, the Ottoman Empire suffered among the greatest number of casualties per capita of all combatants. Civilian losses were caused by famine, disease and the Armenian Genocide which resulted in the deaths of about 1.5 million Armenians[22,77] The Armenian resistance (1914-1918) fought against the Ottoman government.
    Ottoman military casualties are from data in the Ottoman Archives that was published in Turkey in the World War by Ahmed Emin, Yale 1930. Military deaths include 305,085 killed or missing action and 466,759 deaths due to disease[14,211]
    Other estimates of Ottoman military casualties are as follows:
    By UK War Office in 1922: Killed 50,000, died wounds 35,000, died of disease 240,000 [11,]-
    By US War Dept in 1919: Battle deaths 250,000[25,139]
    Regarding civilian losses in the Ottoman Empire Edward J. Erikson [12]has noted “ To the military losses must be added the huge loss of life and productivity of the Muslim, Armenian and other Ottoman civilians killed or injured during the war” He also noted that “The empire’s productive Armenian population was largely gone”[14,210-211]. -
  23. ^ Denmark
    Denmark was neutral in the war but a part of Denmark was placed in Germany at that time, causing 3900 of 30.000 enlisted danes to die in German service, these losses are included with German casualties. 722 Danish merchant sailors died, mostly due to vessels torpedoed by German submarines.[13]
  24. ^ Norway
    Norway was neutral in the war but 1,892 Norwegian merchant sailors died, mostly due to vessels torpedoed by German submarines. Norway lost about 50% of its merchant fleet, percentage-wise the highest loss of any nation's merchant fleet in WWI.[14]
  25. ^ Sweden
    Sweden was neutral in the war but 877 Swedish merchant sailors died, mostly due to vessels torpedoed or sunk by mines. [15]

[edit] See also

[edit] Main article

World War I

[edit] Other

[edit] References

  • 1. ^ -Everett, Susanne, World War I-An Illustrated History, Bison Books, 1980 ISBN 0671069330
  • 2. ^ -Nicolson, Colin, The Longman Companion to the First World War, Longman 2001, ISBN 0-582-28983-1
  • 3. ^ -Bird, Will R., The Communication Trench, Anecdotes & Statistics from The Great War 1914-1918. CEF Books, Ottawa, 2000. ISBN 1896979092
  • 4. ^ -Tucker, Spencer C. The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia, Garland Publishing, New York, 1999, ISBN 0-8153-3351-X
  • 5. ^ -Hirschfeld, Gerhard (Ed.), Enzyklopaedie Erster Weltkrieg, Paderborn, 2004, ISBN 3506739131 (esp. article "Kriegsverluste" by Ruediger Overmans P. 663-666)
  • 6. ^ -Urlanis, Boris, Wars and Population, Moscow, 1971
  • 7. ^ -Urlanis, Boris, Bilanz der Kriege, Berlin, 1965.
  • 8. ^ -Heeres-Sanitaetsinspektion im Reichskriegsministeriums, Sanitaetsbericht über das deutsche Heer, (deutsches Feld- und Besatzungsheer), im Weltkriege 1914-1918, Volume 3, Sec 1. Berlin 1934.
  • 9. ^ -Dumas, Samuel, Losses of Life Caused by War, Oxford 1923
  • 10. ^  Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
  • 11. ^ -Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire During the Great War 1914-1920, The War Office March 1922 -Reprinted by Naval & Military Press- ISBN 1847346812
  • 12. ^ -"Huber M.,La Population de la France pendant la guerre, Paris 1931
  • 13. ^ -"Bujac, Jean. Les campagnes de l'armèe Hellènique, 1918-1922, Paris, 1930
  • 14. ^ -Edward J. Erickson, Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War, Greenwood 2001. ISBN 0313315167
  • 15. ^ -The Commonwealth War Graves Commission Debt of Honour Register.[19]
  • 16. ^ -Grey, Randal Chronicle of the First World War, Vol II: 1917-1921, Facts On File, 1991. ISBN 0816025959
  • 17. ^ -Grebler, Leo- The Cost of the World War to Germany and Austria-Hungary, Yale University Press, 1940
  • 18. ^ Gilbert,Martin-Atlas of World War I, Oxford UP, 1994. ISBN 0195210778
  • 19. ^ Harries, Merion, Soldiers of the Sun-The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army,Random House, 1991 ISBN 0679753036
  • 20. ^ Mortara, G. La Salute pubblica in Italia durante e dopo la Guerra, New Haven: Yale University Press 1925.
  • 21. ^ Mitchell, T.J. Casualties and Medical Statistics of the Great War London 1931; Reprinted by Battery Press, 1997 ISBN 0898392632
  • 22. ^ James L.Gelvin The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War Cambridge University Press ISBN 0521852890
  • 23. ^ L. Hersch, La mortalité causée par la guerre mondiale, Metron- The International Review of Statistics, 1927, Vol 7.
  • 24. ^ -Ellis, John World War I-Databook, Aurum Press, 1993 ISBN 1854107666
  • 25. ^ -Ayers, Leonard, The War With Germany- A Statistical Summary, US War Dept 1919.
  • 26. ^ -Österreichischen Bundesministerium für Herrswesen, Österreich-Ungarns letzer Kreig, 1914-1918. Vol. 7, Vienna 1938.
  • 27. ^ The Army Council. General Annual Report of the British Army 1912-1919. Parliamemtary Paper 1921, XX, Cmd.1193.
  • 28. ^ l'Annuaire statistique de la Belgique et du Congo Belge 1915-1919. Bruxelles 1922.
  • 29. ^ World War I casualties - from Twentieth Century Atlas
  • 30. ^  Horne, John and Kramer, Alan Kramer, German Atrocities, 1914 ISBN 0300089759

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