Women as theological figures

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Women as theological figures, have played a significant role in the development of various religions and religious hierarchies.

1 In religious hierarchies
2 Bahá'í Faith
3 Buddhism
4 Christianity
5 Hinduism
6 Islam
7 Jainism
8 Judaism
9 Sikhism
10 Taoism
11 Other religions
12 Spiritual mediums
13 See also
14 References

[edit] In religious hierarchies

Women can take on specific roles in different religious hierarchies.

In various religions (including Christianity and Buddhism) women can take on the role of nuns: the head of a nunnery is an abbess.
In the Classical period women could, among other roles, be priestesses, Vestal Virgins and Maenads.
From the Early Christian period there have been deaconesses and abbesses.
In the modern period women can serve as priests in a number of churches in the Anglican Communion and in some parts of the Anglican Church such as the Anglican Church of Canada and the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, they have been elected as bishops: there is presently a move towards opening up the role of bishop to them in the Church of England.
Women can also serve as ministers in various other Protestant churches
Certain modern Jewish traditions allow female rabbis—for example Rabbi Julia Neuberger
There have also been women missionaries—the China Inland Mission was one of the first organisations to recruit single women to this end
Recent archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest known shamans—dating to the Upper Paleolithic era in what is now the Czech Republic—were women.^[1]

Women can also serve in the same kinds of roles as men in religious leadership or serve by their accomplishments in leadership roles.

Several women played leading roles in the early days of the Bahá'í Faith in the religion and in America specifically [1], [2] and [3]. Among them are: May Maxwell [4], Corinne True[5], and Martha Root and these roles have continued through the twentieth century with Amatu'l-Bahá Ruhiyyih Khanum [6] served in both elected and appointed roles of national and international leadership.
Patricia Locke was the first American Indian woman elected in the National administrative institution of the Bahá'í Faith of the United States. [7]
Jaqueline Left Hand Bull Delahunt has served in appointed as well as elected national leadership of the Bahá'í Faith of the United States and was profiled in A Parliament of Souls: Conversations with 28 Spiritual Leaders from Around the World" in 1994[8].
Layli Miller-Muro founded the Tahirih Justice Center in 1997 following a well-publicized asylum case in which she was involved as a student attorney. Layli later co-wrote a book with the client she had aided and used her portion of the proceeds for the initial funding of Center. As of 2003, the organization had assisted more than 4,000 women and children fleeing from a wide variety of abuses.
Dr. Susan Maneck, a researcher in women studies and religion has written many articles including Women in the Baha'i Faith[9]

[edit] Bahá'í Faith

Main article: Bahá'í Faith and gender equality

The Holy Spirit, as the means of the announcement of the Revelation of God to His Messenger has been presented symbolically as a Dove in Christianity, the angel Gabriel in Islam, and in the Bahá'í Faith as the Maid of Heaven. As the presentation of the Holy Spirit She is referred to several times in the Bahá'í literature including quotes such as in the Hidden Words (Persian number 77) and "The Tablet of the Holy Mariner":

In the night-season the beauty of the immortal Beauty hath repaired from the emerald height of fidelity unto the Sadratu'l-Muntahá (figuratively the tree beyond which there is no path, no passing—the summit of this world beyond which are the infinite worlds of God) and wept with such a weeping that the concourse on high and the dwellers of the realms above wailed at his lamenting. Whereupon there was asked why the wailing and weeping? He made reply: as bidden I waited expectant upon the hill of faithfulness, yet inhaled not from them that dwelt on the earth the fragrance of fidelity. Then summoned to return I beheld, and lo! certain doves of holiness were sore tried within the claws of the dogs of earth. Thereupon the Maid of Heaven hastened forth unveiled and resplendent from Her mystic mansion, and asked of their names, and all were told but one. And when urged the first letter thereof was uttered, whereupon the dwellers of the celestial chambers rushed forth out of their habitation of glory. And whilst the second letter was pronounced they fell down, one and all upon the dust. At that moment a voice was heard from the inmost shrine: "Thus far and no farther."

See Female Representations of the Holy Spirit in Bahá'í and Christian writings and their implications for gender roles and The Maid of Heaven for further reading.

Táhirih was the seventeenth disciple or "Letter of the Living" of the Báb, and the only woman in that group, and thus she is sometimes been compared to Mary Magdelene in that aspect. Unlike the other Letters of the Living, she never met the Báb, but communicated with him through letters. After the Báb's arrest in 1848, Táhirih attended a conference of Bábí leaders in Badasht, Persia where she appeared in public without her veil stressing the separation of Babi laws from the Islamic Sharia. It was at the Badasht conference that she was given the title Táhirih by Bahá'u'lláh, which means "the Pure One" or "Virginial." With the virtual extermination of the Bábi movement in the early 1850s, Táhirih was killed in her early to mid 30's in 1852 in the garden of Ilkhani in Tehran, capital of modern day Iran. One of her most notable quotes is her deathbed utterance, "You can kill me as soon as you like, but you cannot stop the emancipation of women."
Ásíyih Khánum, Bahá'u'lláh's wife, was given the title Navváb by Bahá'u'lláh. Bahá'u'lláh also named her the Most Exalted Leaf and declared her his "perpetual consort in all the worlds of God."
Bahíyyih Khánum was Bahá'u'lláh's daughter and entitled the Greatest Holy Leaf. She was particularly dear to her father and is seen within the Bahá'í Faith as one of greatest women to have lived:

"Verily, We have elevated thee to the rank of one of the most distinguished among thy sex, and granted thee, in My court, a station such as none other woman hath surpassed."

(Baha'u'llah, quoted in The Bahá'í World, vol. V, p. 171)[10]

After the death of `Abdu'l-Bahá, and until Shoghi Effendi took up his appointed role of Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, she was the head of the religion.

[edit] Buddhism

Main article: Women in Buddhism

Khema, first Chief female disciple in power
Kisa Gotami

Further information: Category:Disciples of the Buddha

Machig Labdrön—founder of the Tibetan practice of Chöd
Maha Pajapati Gotami
Pema Chodron—fully ordained Buddhist nun in the Tibetan Shambhala lineage.
Ani Tenzin Palmo—a nun in the Drukpa Kagyu lineage and founder of Dongyu Gatsal Ling Nunnery in Himachal Pradesh, India
Uppalavanna, second Chief female disciple
Yeshe Tsogyal—Tibetan consort and disciple of the Padmasambhava

[edit] Christianity

Main article: Christian views about women

In the early 16th century Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim, a German theologian teaching in France published "On the Nobility and Superiority of the Female Sex" in which he argued that there was no reason why women should not hold political or religious office.

During the period of Oliver Cromwell's rule there were many religious and political debates and developments. Among the former (see Gangrena for a partial overview) were female preachers. Around that time, the Religious Society of Friends took a position in favor of women as equal participants in religious observance; see Quaker views of women for an overview.

[edit] Women prominent in the New Testament

Lydia and Phoebe—*

Mary Magdalene—one of Jesus' closest followers

Mary of Bethany—disciple of Jesus. Sometimes misidentified with Mary Magdalene
Mary—Mother of Jesus
Priscilla— with her husband Aquila was a New Testament teacher, partner with Apostle Paul,

[edit] Women prominent in the Early Christian Church

Saints Perpetua and Felicity important martyrs
Saint Monica of Hippo
Clotilde
Hilda of Whitby—royal abbess in the 7th century.

[edit] Women prominent in the Medieval church

Antoinette Bourignon—a mystic
St. Bridget of Sweden (1302–1373)
Heloise (student of Abelard)
Hildegard of Bingen— theologian, mystic, wrote much music (there being some recordings)
Julian of Norwich— a mystic
St. Margery Kempe (c.1373–1438)
Saint Macrina the Younger—sister and influence upon Saint Basil the Great and Saint Gregory of Nyssa
St. Clare of Assisi—founded the Poor Clares
St. Julian of Norwich (1342-c.1416)
St. Scholastica—twin sister of Benedict of Nursia

[edit] Women prominent in the Catholic church (Post-Reformation)

Mme Guyon was influential in Quietism (Christian philosophy)
Mother Cabrini—missionary to New York and first canonized US citizen
Mother Teresa—founder of the Missionaries of Charity in India
St. Elizabeth Ann Seton—founded the Sisters of Charity
St. Faustina Kowalska—promoted devotion to Divine Mercy
St. Katharine Drexel—founded the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament, which performed charitable works for Native Americans and African Americans
St. Rose Philippine Duchesne—co-founder of the Society of the Sacred Heart
St. Teresa of Avila a mystic

In 1970 three women were declared Doctor of the Church

Feliksa Kozlowska was involved in the establishment of the Mariavite Church, a Catholic-based church one part of which accepts women priests and bishops.

[edit] Women prominent in Protestant Churches

Anne Boleyn—influenced religious development in England indirectly by leading Henry VIII to divorce Catherine of Aragon and break from the Catholic Church

There have been a number of hymns written by women, and also psalms, from the pen of Fanny Crosby and Emily Gosse, for example.

Aimee Semple McPherson ("Sister Aimee") an early 20th century evangelist and founder of the Foursquare Church
Ann Wardley—contributed to the development of the Shakers
Catherine Booth—cofounder of the Salvation Army
Elizabeth Fry—Quaker and prison reformer
Ellen G. White—co-founder and prophetess of the Seventh-day Adventist Church
Evangeline Booth—fourth General of the Salvation Army
Hannah Whitall Smith—prominent leader in the Holiness movement
Joanna Southcott—an 18th Century self-described religious prophetess and founder of Southcottians
Li Tim-Oi The first female priest to be ordained in the Anglican Communion
Louisa Maria Hubbard (1836–1906)—involved in the deaconess movement and published in 1871 a pamphlet: Anglican Deaconesses: is there No Place for Women in the System?
Mother Ann Lee—leader of the Shakers in America
Phoebe Palmer—prominent leader in the Holiness movement
Selina, Countess of Huntingdon—was involved with Methodism and there was a group called the Countess of Huntingdon's Connection
Mary Baker Eddy—founded Christian Science

[edit] Hinduism

Recognition of the feminine aspect of God during the last century by Tantric and Shakti religious leaders, has led to the legitimization of the female teachers and female gurus in Hinduism. A notable example was Ramakrishna, who worshiped his wife as the embodiment of the divine feminine. ^[11]

Gangaji aka Antoinette Roberson Varner
Gurumayi Chidvilasananda, latest teacher in the lineage of teachers of Siddha Yoga (as of 2007).
Mata Amritanandamayi
Mother Meera referred to as a "female guru" by author Karen Pechilis ^[12]

[edit] Islam

See also: Women as imams

In May 2006 Morocco appointed 50 female preachers (Mourchidats)

Aisha bint Talha—Eminent scholar
A'isha—Narrator of largest number of hadith
Maryam-mother of Isa (Jesus)
Amara bin Al-Rahman—Exemplary woman jurist
Asma bint Abu Bakr—Narrator of Hadith
Fatima Zahra—the youngest daughter of Muhammad and Khadijah. Considered by Muslims to be the greatest woman of all times.
Fatimah bint Qays—Famous scholar
Khadijah—First convert to Islam, first wife of Muhammad
Nusaibah bint Ka'b al-Ansariyah—Famous warrior
Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya—Important figure in the development of Sufism
Rabia—Most important of the early Sufi poets
Sayyida Nafisa—Scholar
Sumayyah bint Khabbab—First martyr of Islam, seventh convert to it
Ukhtul Mazni—Highly placed scholar of Islamic jurisprudence
Umm Ad Darda—Expert theologian
Umm 'Atiyyah—Scholar of Islamic jurisprudence
Umm Salamah—Narrator of Hadith
Umm Salim—Famous scholar
Umrah Bint Abdu Rahman—Eminent theologian and famous scholar

[edit] Jainism

The status of women in Jainism differs between the two main sects, Digambar and Svetambara. Jainism prohibits women from appearing naked; because of this, Digambaras, who consider renunciation of clothes essential to Moksha, say that they cannot attain Moksha.^[2] Svetambaras, who allow sadhus to wear clothes, believe that women can attain Moksha. Some Jains consider women to be inherently inferior, but most do not. Nevertheless, there are more Svetambara sadhvis than sadhus and women have always been influential in the Jain religion.^[3]

Mallinath, the 19th Jain Tirthankar; she was female according to Svetambara Jains, male according to Digambara Jains.
Marudevi, the mother of Rishabha
Trishala, the mother of Mahavira

[edit] Judaism

Prominent women of the Old Testament

Deborah, Hebrew prophetess, fourth judge
Esther, Jewish heroine associated with the feast of Purim
Huldah, the prophetess who validated the scroll found in the Temple (thought by many to be the book of Deuteronomy)
Miriam, Prophetess

[edit] Sikhism

Bibi Bhani
Bibi Nanaki
Mai Bhago
Mata Gujri
Mata Jitoji
Mata Khivi
Mata Sahib Kaur
Mata Sundri

[edit] Taoism

One of the Taoist Eight Immortals, Ho Hsien-ku, is a woman. Additionally, Sun Bu'er was a famous female Taoist master in the 12th Century. Her work "Secret Book on the Inner Elixir (as Transmitted by the Immortal Sun Bu'er)" discussed some of the particularities of female Inner Elixir (Neidan) cultivation. Taoist nuns usually have equal status with Taoist monks.

Wei Huacun—A founder of the Shangqing School of Taoism.

[edit] Other religions

Annie Besant—Theosophist influential in the Indian Independence Movement
Madame Blavatsky—contributed to the development and promotion of theosophy
Nakayama Miki—founder of Tenrikyo
Nirmala Srivastava founder and self-proclaimed goddess of Sahaja Yoga

[edit] Spiritual mediums

Helen Schucman who claimed to have scribed A Course in Miracles
Jane Roberts who claimed to have channeled Seth
Judy Z. Knight (born Judith Darlene Hampton), who claims to have channeled Ramtha
Alice Auma of the Holy Spirit Movement

[edit] See also

[edit] References

^ Tedlock, Barbara. 2005. The Woman in the Shaman's Body: Reclaiming the Feminine in Religion and Medicine. New York: Bantam.
^ BBC - Religion & Ethics - Women in Jainism
^ The Role of Women - Victoria and Albert Museum

Joan Breton Connelly Portrait of a Priestess: Women and Ritual in Ancient Greece Princeton University Press March 2007
Evangelisti Silvia Evangelisti Nuns: A History of Convent Life, OUP 2007
^ Pechilis, Karen. The Graceful Guru: Hindu Female Gurus in India and the United States ISBN 0–19–514538–0
^ Shattuck, Cybelle and Lewis, Nancy D. The Pocket Idiot's Guide to Hinduism (2002). ISBN 0–02–864482–4
http://www.rhul.ac.uk/bedford-centre/history-women-religious/ being the webpage of the History of Women Religious of Britain and Ireland, which has a number of entries on the links page.