Western Chalukya literature

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Typical Western Chalukya dravida Vimana at Siddesvara temple in Haveri, Karnataka
Typical Western Chalukya dravida Vimana at Siddesvara temple in Haveri, Karnataka

The reign of the Western Chalukyas (Kannada:ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ) spanning the 10th century - 12th century period holds a pre-eminent place in the history of Kannada literature. They are also known as Kalyani Chalukyas or Later Chalukyas. Many important and enduring works were written. Some of the earliest works on secular subjects like erotics, medicine, sciences, lexicon, encyclopedia, general knowledge are attributed to their court poets. In a golden age of Kannada literature a unique and native form of poetry called Vachanas evolved. Sanskrit language literature also produced many famous works, especially on legal and scientific subjects.

Contents

[edit] Kannada writings

[edit] Court literature

Kannada poets and writers in Western Chalukya Empire
(973-1200 CE)
Ranna 982
Nemichandra 990
Manasija 10th c.
Chandrabhatta 10th c.
Chandraraja 1025
Durgasimha 1025
Chavundaraya II 1025
Shridharacharya 1049
Nagavarma-II 1042 or 1145
Santinatha 1068
Gunachandra 1070
Nagavarmacharya 1070
Gunavarma 1070-1100
Nayasena 1112
Prince Kirtivarma 1125
Brahmashiva 1125
Karnaparya 1145
Jagaddala Somanatha 1150

Ranna, born in a family of bangle sellers (in Mudhol, modern Bagalkot district), was the court poet of Western Chalukya kings Tailapa II and Satyasraya. He was also patronised by a devout Jain lady called Attimabbe.[1][2] Ranna is famous for writing Ajitha purana (993), which recounts the life of the second Jain Tirthankar Ajitanatha. However, it is in Sahasa Bhima Vijaya (also called Gada Yudda or "Conflict of Clubs'", 982) that he reaches his zenith of poetic grace while describing the conflict between Pandava Bhima and Kaurava prince Duryodhana in his version of the epic Mahabharata.[3][4]

Unlike Pampa who glorified Arjuna and Karna in his writing, Ranna eulogises his patron King Satyasraya and favourably compares him to Bhima, whom he coronates at the end of the Mahabharata war. He calls Bhima's adversary Duryodhana "a great person" (mahanubhava). Perhaps the most poignant piece of elegiac verse in all of ancient Kannada literature is one that describes the heart rendering lamentation of Duryodhana (called karuna rasa or "sentiment of pathos") on seeing the slain bodies of his brother Duhshasana, his inseparable friend in joy and sorrow, Karna, and Arjuna's valorous son Abhimanyu.[5] The dramatic effect given to the writing, the powerful language, the diction and the style maintained through out the narration has earned Ranna a place among the immortals of Kannada literature.[4] Ascribed also to Ranna is the earliest known dictionary in Kannada called the Rannakanda (990), though only eleven verses of this writing has come down to us.[6] His other notable writings are the Chakeresvaracharita and the Parashuramacharitha. Ranna was bestowed the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavi Chakravathi) by his patron king.[7]

Nemichandra, wrote the Kaviraja kunjara and Lilavati with Prince Kavdarpa Deva of Jayantipura (modern Banavasi) and Princess Lilavati as the protagonists of the latter poem. He is dated to about c. 990.[8] Gunavarma who earned the honorific Bhuvanaika Vira is mentioned by Keshiraja (1260) as the author of Harivamsa. His title identifies him with a Ganga prince called Udayaditya who was a minister and successful general under Chalukya Bhuvanaika Malla (Somesvara II, 1069–1076). Gunavarma was also author of Pushpadanta Purana and Devachandra Prabha Stotra.[9]

Jagaddala Somanatha's Karnataka Kalyanakaraka (1150), a translation of the Sanskrit writing Kalyanakaraka by Pujyapada is the earliest writing on medicine prescribing an entirely vegetarian and non-alcoholic treatment.[10] Shridharacharya, a Jain Brahmin patronised by Somesvara I showed his ability to write on scientific subjects (Shastrakavita) in the Jatakatilaka (1049), the earliest writing on astrology (Sastra-kavitva) in Kannada and Chandraprabha Charite on belles-lettres (Kavya-Kavitva).[11][12] Chandraraja's Madanatilaka (1025), written in the champu metre, is the earliest in erotics in the language. The book is written as a dialogue between the patron and his wife, in posakannada, the most modern Kannada in usage at the time.[13][11] He was under the patronage of Machiraja, feudatory of King Jayasimha II.[12]

Among grammarians, Nagavarma-II, poet laureate (Katakacharya) of the Chalukya king Jagadhekamalla II made significant contributions. Very few scholars in the history of Kannada literature have made contributions in as many subjects as Nagavarma II.[14][15] His works in grammar, poetry, prosody, and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged. Among his other writings, the Kavyavalokana on grammar and rhetoric, the Karnataka Bhashabhushana (1145) on grammar and a lexicon called Vastukosa giving Kannada equivalents of Sanskrit words are important.[16] Vardhamana Puranam (1042) is a recent discovery which has been ascribed to Nagavarma II. This discovery has created uncertainty about the poet's actual lifetime since it suggests that he may have lived a century earlier and been patronised by King Jayasimha II.[17]

Shantinatha who was patronised by King Somesvara II wrote the poem Sukumaracharita in 1068.[18] Kirtivarma, younger brother of Vikramaditya VI wrote Govaidya the earliest writing in Kannada on veterinery science. The writing also is about medicine and magic.[19] Karnaparya (1145) wrote on the life of 22nd Tirthankara in his Neminathapurana in champu style including details of the Mahabharata and Lord Krishna.[10]

Nayasena (1112) wrote Dharmamritha, a book containing among other accounts, fifteen stories that belong to the genre of fables and parables. Well known among these stories are "Yajnadatta and the mongoose", "Kapalika and the young elephant", "Serpant, tiger, monkey and the goldsmith who had fallen in the old well". The main theme in these stories is to teach about Jain tenets.[20] Brahmashiva who earned the title Kavichakravarti from Vikramaditya VI wrote Samayaparikshe in 1125 in which he seeks to prove the virtues of Jainsim as superior.[19] Advaita saint Nagavarmacharya (1070) of Balipura (modern Balligavi) patronised by Ganga king Udayatidya, a feudatory of Somesvara II wrote Chandra Chudamani Sataka a writing on ethics of renuncitation.[11][21]

Durgasimha (1031), the minister of war and peace (Sandhi Vigrahi) under King Jayasimha II wrote Panchatantra ("The five strategems") in champu style, based on Gunadhya's original , Brihatkatha, written in Paishachi language. This rendering of the Panchatantra is the first of its kind in a vernacular language in India and an early example of a full fledged writing in the genre of fable in Kannada. Containing sixty fables in all, thirteen of which are original stories, each fable is summarised by an ethical moral based witha Jain element in it.[20] Durgasimha also authored the Karnataka Banachatantra in which he gave a brief commentary on all the Sanskrit verses he quoted in the writing. This may be considered an early example of a commentary in Kannada.[20]

Chavundaraya II, a Brahmin Advaita-Shaiva by faith and protege of King Jayasimha II wrote Lokopakara in the champu metre, dated 1025. This book is the earliest available encyclopaedia in the language, written a times with a poetic touch. It comprises twelve chapters and found popularity in later references as well. The work is on various topics such as, a guide to daily life, astronomy, astrology and forecasting of events according to the Indian calendar (panchanga phala), sculpture, construction of buildings (vastu vichara) and reservoirs (udakargala), omens, divination of water, preparation of medicine from herbs and plants (vrikshayurveda), general medicine (vaidya), perfumes, cookery and toxicology (vishavaidya).[11][22] Udayadityalankara (1150) is attributed to a Chola prince of those times who went by the name Udayaditya.[10]

[edit] Bhakti literature

Famous Vachana poets (Kannada) of 11th-12th century
Madara Channaih Early 11th c.
Dohara Kakkaiah Early 11th c.
Devara Dasimaiah 1040
Duggale 1040
Bahurupi Chaudayya 11th-12th c.
Allama Prabhu 1150
Basavanna 1150
Akka Mahadevi 1150
Gangambike 1150
Neelambike 1150
Nagalambike 1150
Chennabasava 1150
Prabhudeva 1150
Siddharama 1150
Kondaguli Kesiraja 1150
Madivala Machayya 1150

The birth of the Vachana poetry, a unique and native form of mystic expression in the Kannada language, was in the decades prior to Basavanna (1160). Names of three Vachana poets (Vachanakaras) and some of their poems are available. Madara Chennaiah, a cobbler-saint, who is considered by some scholars as the "father of Vachana poetry", was held in high esteem by later day Vachana poets of the 12th century. Basavanna even wrote of Chennaiah as his "father". Only 10 of Chennaiah's poems are extant today.[23] Dohara Kakkaiah is the second poet. A dalit by birth, his 6 extant poems are confessional in nature, a theme seen in the later poems of Basavanna as well.[24] Devara Dasimaiah (or Jedara Dasimaiah) is better known and a considerable number of his poems are available. Numbering about 150, his poems set the trend encouraging monotheistic belief in God Shiva. Embedded in his deft and concise poems are proverbs and metaphors. Dasimaiah's wife Duggale perhaps qualifies as Kannada's first women poet, though only two of her poems are available. A few poems written by his wife Duggale, who qualifes as the first women Vachana poet are available.[24]

Basavanna (or Basava, 1160), the prime minister of southern Kalachuri King Bijjala II, is generally regarded as the inspiration for the the escalation of this socio-religious movement in the 12th century.[25] Though born of Brahmin parents (in Basavana Bagewadi in modern Bijapur district), he rejected the ritual thread ceremony (upanayanam) and spearheaded this new faith which taught absolute devotion towards God Shiva. A centre of religious discussions called Anubhava Mantapa ("hall of experience") in Kalyani became the conclave where devotees gathered to discuss their mystic experiences.[26] Here, they expressed their devotion to Shiva in simple poems called Vachanas. These poems were spontaneous utterances of rhythmic, epigrammatical, satirical prose emphasising the worthlessness of riches, rituals and book learning, displaying a dramatic quality reminiscent of the dialogues of Plato.[27][28]

12th century social reformer and Kannada poet, Basavanna
12th century social reformer and Kannada poet, Basavanna

Basavanna, Allama Prabhu, Devara Dasimayya, Chennabasava, Prabhudeva, Siddharama (1150), and Kondaguli Kesiraja are the best known among more than three hundred poets (called vachanakaras) in this genre. Prominent among the thirty-three women poets was Akka Mahadevi, who in addition to poetry is credited with two short writings, Mantrogopya and Yogangatrividhi.[29][30][31][32] Credited to Siddharama are writings in tripadi metre and 1,379 extant poems (though he has claimed authorship of 68,000 poems).[33] Inscriptions mention a Bahurupi Chaudayya who was well known for his histrionic talent while reciting his poems and Mokari Baramayya who is described as a "Brahma" (creator) of all arts with knowledge and talent in singing, dancing and playing musical instruments.[19] The assassination of King Bijjala and eviction of the sharanas (devotees) from Kalyani caused a temporary set back to this order, which however had set roots in the Kannada soil and regained popularity in the 15th century under the patronage of the rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire.[26]

[edit] Sanskrit writings

The Chalukya rulers of Kalyani gave encouragement to Sanskrit scholars.[34] Famous among them were the Jain scholar Vadiraja who wrote Yashodharacharitam, Parshvanatha Charitam, Nyayavinishchayatika, a commentary on Akalankas called Nyayavinishchaya, two epics and a writing on logic called Pramanathraya.[34]Kashmiri poet Bilhana immortalized the name of his patron Vikramaditya VI through his Vikramankadeva Charitha.[35] Vijnaneshwara achieved fame by writing Asaucadasaka and Mitakshara a book on Hindu law.[36]

Somesvara III was a great scholar and complied an encyclopedia of all arts and sciences called Manasollasa (also known as Abhilashithartha Chintamani, 1130).[37] Vidyamadhava patronised by Somesvara III wrote Parvati Rukminiya where each verse carries two meanings, one narrates the marriage of Lord Shiva and Parvati while the other, the marriage of Lord Krishna and Rukmini. Kaviraja Madhava Bhatta in the court of Kadamba Kamadeva wrote Raghava Pandaviya, a narration of the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata and Parijataharana in ten cantos on a well known episode from the legends of Lord Krishna.[35] A student of Vijnaneshwara called Narayana wrote an independent digest on civil law called Vyavaharasiromani which is only partially available.[38] Jagadhekamalla II wrote Sangithachudamani a work on music in five chapters, Parashvadeva patronised by King Somesvara III wrote Sangithasamayasara, Mitasagara and Dayapala were two well known scholars who wrote Rupasiffhi[34]

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Kamath (2001), pp. 114–115
  2. ^ Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna are the "three gems" of Kannada literature (Sastri 1955, p. 356)
  3. ^ E.P.Rice (1921), p. 32
  4. ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 620
  5. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1149
  6. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1024
  7. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 356
  8. ^ Lewis Rice (1985) p. xviii
  9. ^ Lewis Rice (1985) p. xix–xx
  10. ^ a b c Sastri (1955) p. 358
  11. ^ a b c d Sastri (1955) p. 357
  12. ^ a b E.P.Rice (1921), p. 33–34
  13. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988) p. 62–64
  14. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 64–65,
  15. ^ E.P.Rice (1921), p. 34
  16. ^ Sastri 1955, p. 358
  17. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1475
  18. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p19
  19. ^ a b c Kamath (2001), p. 115
  20. ^ a b c Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1122, 1253
  21. ^ Rice E.P. (1921), pp. 33–34
  22. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1165
  23. ^ Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), p. 171–172
  24. ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 172
  25. ^ Rice E.P. (1926), p. 42
  26. ^ a b Kamath (2001), p. 153
  27. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1324
  28. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 191
  29. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 20
  30. ^ Rice B.L. in Sastri 1955, p. 361
  31. ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 167–168
  32. ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 178
  33. ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 181
  34. ^ a b c Kamath (2001) p. 114
  35. ^ a b The last canto of this work is about the life of Bilhana who wrote that the work was composed by him in gratitude for the great honor bestowed upon him by the ruler of Karnata (Sastri 1955, p. 315)
  36. ^ Perhaps the greatest book in legal literature, Mitakshara is a commentary on Yajnavalkya and is a treatise on law based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of India (Sastri 1955, p. 324)
  37. ^ The writing is one on various topics including traditional medicine, music, precious stones, dance etc. (Kamath 2001, p. 106)
  38. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 325

[edit] References

  • Sastri, Nilakanta K.A. [1955] (2002). A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-560686-8. 
  • Kamath, Suryanath U. [1980] (2001). A concise history of Karnataka : from pre-historic times to the present. Bangalore: Jupiter books. LCCN 809-5179. OCLC 7796041. 
  • Various [1987] (1987). Encyclopaedia of Indian literature - vol 1. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8126018038. 
  • Various [1988] (1988). Encyclopaedia of Indian literature - vol 2. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8126011947. 
  • Narasimhacharya, R [1988] (1988). History of Kannada Literature. New Delhi: Penguin Books. ISBN 81-206-0303-6. 
  • Rice, E.P. [1921] (1982). Kannada Literature. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120600630. 
  • Shiva Prakash, H.S. (1997). "Kannada", in Ayyappapanicker: Medieval Indian Literature:An Anthology. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8126003650. 
  • Lewis, Rice (1985). Nagavarmma’s Karnataka Bhasha Bhushana. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120600622.