West Virginia Prehistory
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For more details on this topic, see West Virginia Waterways.
The area now known as West Virginia was a favorite hunting ground of numerous Native American peoples before the arrival of European settlers. Many ancient man-made earthen mounds from various mound builder cultures survive, especially in the areas of Moundsville, South Charleston, and Romney. Although little is known about these civilizations, the artifacts uncovered in these give evidence of a complex, stratified culture that practiced metallurgy.
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[edit] Origins
Antiquity West Virginia, in a broad sense, can be characterized as evolving through acculturation and assimilation with a few exceptions. Nomadic Paleo-Indian hunted throughout the state using variations of spear points. These evolved into the Mountain State's Archaic Indians living in temporary villages on the Kanawha region streams, Monongahela and Potomac tributaries streams of the Allegheny Mountains who began to use basic Atlatls. An early Eastern Woodland culture began a friendly trade with the evolving Ohio Valley archaics. These continued the trade with Adena who also begin inhabiting the West Virginia's valleys. (Dragoo)[1] This acculturation led to many of the Mountain State's mound builders, for example the St Albans site (Broyles 1968), Criel Mound, Grave Creek Mound and Indian Mound Cemetery. Woodland cultures basically means the coming of the bow for fire making, shaft-end dressing and some will later include the stone point arrow.
The chronological cultural changes in general seems to have been by influx from the surrounding regions to the Mountain State. "The Fort Ancient tradition follows the Late Woodland period within the Ohio River Valley. Joining trees (DNA ANALYSIS) revealed that the Ohio Hopewell do not group with samples from Fort Ancient populations of the Ohio River Valley, but with samples from Glacial Kame, Adena or Norris Farms, possibly indicating some relationship between the groups. This in part could be due to small sample size and a low number of sites that have been amplified. More work within all of the Ohio River Valley cultures is needed to give a clearer picture to archaeologists, linguists and biological anthropologists alike."[2]
- See also: Geography of West Virginia
Flint Point Periods (pike and atlatl heads, ie. arrow heads) 
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Neighboring Archaic Cultures:
Archaic are evidenced by the frequent use of ground-stone implements and flint woodworking tools in sites having bowls, knives, net sinkers, and elaborate weights for spear throwers called atlatl and become rather common about 4000 B.C. A few uncommon "Pointed Pole Adzes" are suspected to have been used for heavy wood works at one late "Panhandle Archaic" site (~2000 B.C.) by recent studies. A dug out canoe has been suggested awaiting further field work and research. Not many centuries after the 4000 B.C. ear-mark date, the earliest Adena (Mound Builders) culture began to appear, rising from these. They in general are Red Ocher and Glacial Kame (Dragoo, 1963) having connections with archaic Copena culture variation on the Tennessee River system assimilating with trade route. These trade mix will derive the state's fort builder cultures over a millennium later.(Dragoo) Meanwhile, Hopewell will appear relatively sparse compared to Adena large hill mound builders, no longer making effigy mounds. This will be after Hopewellian become scattered and less structured to bring their smaller mounds to the state. West Virginia Middle Woodland Period was redefined to include Adena. This is based on recent excavations and studies conducted at the Gallipolis Dam expansion project.(Maslowski, CWVA) "The introduction of the bow and arrow coincides with the development of, or adoption of, a triangular tradition of point manufacture," to quote Dr. Billy Oliver, North Carolina Office of State Archaeology. Jack’s Reef and the common Levanna projectile points are thought by many to represent the initial introduction of the bow and arrow to West Virginia.
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[edit] Paleoclimatology
Towards the end of the Archaic period, the weather was a time of meridional circulation and penetrations of large storms coming from the Gulf of Mexico. With some overlapping, the western and northern valleys of West Virginia, in general, became warm and dry with less effective precipitation circa 4500 BP causing the bottom land flora to thin. This in turn caused an occasional major flood and serious erosion during the early part transitional weather pattern. The fickle drought period was followed by the following periods: Sub-Boreal climatic phase (ca. 4200-3000 BP) cool and wet period, Sub-Atlantic climatic phase (ca. 3000-1750 BP) warm and moist climatic conditions, Scandic climatic phase (ca. 1750-1250 BP), Neo-Atlantic climatic phase (ca. 1100-750 BP) meta-stable conditions, Pacific climatic phase (ca. 750 BP, Little Ice Age) cool and wet periods.(USACE) The weather patterns influenced the early people's culture of the state.
[edit] Transition to mounds
The West Virginia Archaic Traditions evolved from the nomadic Paleo-Indian already in the region. The Archaic characteristics are not shared in any way with Asian people and rising Eastern Woodland period with exception of the Eskimos and the Athapascans of the north west North America. (Stewart 1960, p.269) and (Dragoo 1963, p.255) The burial mound complex of the Adena (Ohio Valley Mound Builders) is unlikely related to those in Asia because it was not in use in northeastern Asia at an early enough date according to Chard. (1961, p. 21-25) The general area of archaic include the Kanawhan, Monongahela and Panhandle Archaic Complex. See articles: Archaic period in the Americas, Athabaskan languages and Eastern Woodland tribes for details. Kanawha Tansitional Archaic to Adena on Central Ohio Valley
The Classic Adena inherited their archaic ancestor's crafts. Their houses were single poled, wickered sided with bark-sheet roofs. A few sites show a double pole method. The mounds were made more elaborate inside including burial with small log caskets inside them. On their still small patches, they grew a little more local variety of vegetables and roots. They are not known to clear-burn large bottoms for garden nor for wild life habitat attraction. One and only one site has what some scholars suspect to be a small bird pen. Notwithstanding suspicion, they did not practice complex garden nor animal husbandry. |
Tobacco was used in pipes having effigy shapes of ducks and others forms of nature. The turtle figurines seem to have held a special iconization that might have been similar in meaning to the Late Woodland totem. Not many, but some copper adornment and tinklers came from the Wisconsin copper mines and from the Atlantic, sea shells. They made gourd rattles. The Adena noble wore tanned heads of animals during their ceremonies. They had a couple of weaves for coarse cloth and dyed these from local roots and berry, using red ochre above all colors in their nobles' graves. They practiced cultural deformation of the skulls (Sciulli and Mahaney 1986). A braid twine was from leg tenons, leather and fibrous plants. There is no evidence of a raft nor burned out log canoes. Lashed log raft and recent studies suggest a dug out is possible on the Northern Panhandle. Their sachem did not live on a flat topped mound as the "Priest Mound" or better known as the Mississippian culture nor Cahokia. These weighted atlatl users continued to have that friendly Woodland trade coming through the Allegheny Mountain's gaps and the following Late Adena trade of the Tennessee River valley.(Dragoo)
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Neibert Mound site
The Woodland (1000 BC – AD 1200) on the Kanawha and Ohio Rivers settlement patterns at Winfield Lock Site and the Burning Spring Branch site (46KA142) have provided radiocarbon dates and good physical descriptions of the earliest pottery in southern West Virginia. West Virginia's Middle Woodland Period (A.D.~650) was redefined to include Adena with conical burial mounds. Gallipolis locks expansion project on the Ohio River for industrial navigation upgrading allowed the Kirk and Newman Mounds and an Adena ceremonial circle at the Niebert Site to be totally excavated. This provided for new interpretations of Adena ritual associated with burial mounds (Clay 1998, Clay and Niquette 1992). The paired post circle at Niebert consisted of outward sloping posts forming an open air structure. No artifacts were found in the structure but one large pit contained charcoal and fragments of cremated human bone. The structure was interpreted as a place where bodies were cremated and the remains reburied in local burial mounds like Kirk and Newman (Maslowski 2003[4]).
[edit] Stone Industry
Partial list of finds of the adjoining area Northern Panhandle tributaries by amateurs and farmers follows:
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abrader,
Amos, Archaic Bevel, Archaic Dovetail, Archaic T-Drill, Ashtabula, Big Sandy, Brewerton Side Notched, Brewerton Corner Notched, Brewerton Eared Triangle, celt, Chesser Corner Notched, Clovis Fluted, discoidal, Dalton-like drill, |
Drills,
Early Adena Stemmed, Early Archaic knife, flint reduction flakes, hammer stones, full groove aze, hafted scrapers, Jack's Reef Corner Notched, Jack's Reef drill, Jack's Reef's Pentagonal, Jack's Reef Side Notched, Kirk Corner Notched, Lamoka, Large Bifurcate- MacCorkle, |
Late Adena Robbins,
Late Archaic Stemmed, Late Archaic Brewerton Corner Notched, Late Prehistoric triangle (Railey type #4, #5, & #6), Levanna Triangle, Madison Triangle (Railey type #4, #5, & #6), Perkiomen Broad, Raccoon Notched, scrapers, Shaft end dressing/nutting stones, Small Bifurcate, Stanley Stemmed, thumb scrapers. |
For hobbyist considerations, recorded details and location photos of the find increases value if not to the scientific community. It is legal to dig for "arrow heads" on one's own private property. However, for any suspected human bone find, one must stop digging and report the questionable bone to the county sheriff in West Virginia. The West Virginia Archaeology (CWVA) and the West Virginia Archeology Society (WVAS) offers a list of resources to both formal school and "club" educators. They promote the understanding of our prehistoric heritage. "Since ours is only part of a larger regional picture," CWVA and WVAS have selected some credible Internet resources. Their link can be found in the reference section below.
Traditionally, archaeologists visually identify the geological origin of cherts using color and texture as the principal criteria. Officials and scientists from the Midwest to included Missouri, Indiana, Alabama, Kentucky, West Virginia, Pennsylvania and Virginia, working together in workshops, are now using Neutron Activation Analysis, Macroscopic, microscopic, and geochemical identification techniques to help identify regional cherts and chert sources. Rarily seen in the mountain valleys of West Virginia, Indiana, to date, has 23 distinct chert types which is considerably more of variation than West Virginia. Documentation in a large-scale data set from Kirk horizons at Indiana's Farnsley Site (12Hr520) near Louisville, Kentucky, the Muldraugh chert and Wyandotte chert, among minor representations of exotic and other local or semilocal types, have suggested a pattern of more routine movement of Archaic Kirk towards the south and east.[5]
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Hunters from neighboring lowland states ventured into West Virginia's mountain valleys making temporary camp villages since the early archaic period. The Archaic classification of point periods is listed above. Upper Ohio Valley Lithic Sources - Kanawha Flint Bedrock chert along the both sides of the Upper Ohio Valley to the Big Sandy River's lower stream region is called: - Brush Creek Bedrock chert from counties surrounding Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania include: - Loyalhanna Stream cobble cherts of north eastern Ohio and western most Pennsylvania along Lake Erie (Alluvial cherts) include: - Onondaga, Secondary to Ohio Valley Exotic to Upper Ohio Valley types include: - Upper Mercer, counties of Coshocton, Ohio area |
Bow and Arrow
The introduction of the bow and arrow for hunting into the Mountain State appears to have come from the north to the northern and western valleys and to the eastern Allegheny Mountains slopes from the Piedmont Plateau (Griffin, Tuck). There is evidence of the triangular point size in the mountainous regions progressively diminish in size from lower land's gradual evolutions (Oliver). Not only does the triangle point signal bow hunting in the state, it also sees a few examples of curious small stone walls on the ridge line flats of the south eastern region followed by the palisaded wood pole fort builder cultures in the northern and western valleys. Fort building farmers who trade with the Chesapeake Bay and the Gulf of Mexico coincide with hunting bows and the stemless triangle points for them in West Virginia. Although, other stemmed "bird points" can occasionally be found, but, not as often as the archaic stemmed and notched atlatl points. Paleo spear points can be found requiring sometimes years devoted to searching. River boating becomes significant during the bow and arrow stone point transitioning and coastal trade. The main water way was the Ohio River tributaries to the Tennessee River system (Dragoo) and the James and Potomac rivers to the Chesapeake Bay. The fort building farmer culture's transition to historic appears to have occurred through A.D. 1660~1671(3) on the Kanawha Valley.
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Late Prehistoric Regional Cultures
There were three different Late Prehistoric farming societies and settlement patterns in the region. The Mississippian peoples of western and southern Kentucky built large flat-topped earthen temple mounds. The early Fort Ancients built low earthen burial mounds.[8] These people inhabited the region of southern Ohio, eastern Kentucky and western West Virginia. The Monongahela people sometimes buried their sachem under a charnel house within their palisaded village. They were inhabitants of eastern Ohio, western Pennsylvania and northern West Virginia. Monongahela were similar to the Shanks Ferry People of the lower Susquehanna Valley in Pennsylvania.[9] The Susquehanna of the protohistoric period buried their people outside of their palisaded village showing an influx coming from the north.[10] The Susquehanna spoke an Iroquois dialect. They were allies with the Huron Confederacy. A Susquehanna site is located in the Eastern Panhandle at Moorefield, West Virginia.
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For more details on this topic, see Monongahela tribe.
[edit] Past millennium
There are two traditions recognized which influenced the ancient's culture in crafting tools and daily living: lacustrine cultures (upland lake-streams) and riverine cultures (low land river-delta) to use Doctor Dragoo's (Carnegy) terminology. The ecological surroundings at various regions influence early boat making and their fishing methods which help identify the archeological sites. At the base of Seneca Rocks, there were two different fort villages. This mountain stream culture has seemingly appeared and then vanish which is often called the Monogahela Culture. It is not clear if this culture was assimilated by protohistoric tribes in the region. A broader study has shown no clear border in geography due to migration, trade routes and overlapping periods especially of the Protohistoric influx. The highland stream Monongahela Culture was contemporaneous with the region's low and broad river valley Fort Ancient Culture.
The "classic period" Fort Ancient Culture in West Virginia on the Ohio River is exampled at site 46MS57 which apears in the 14th (A.D.) century and siding three Adena mounds. This old field is a few miles above the mouth of the Kanawha River.[11] One of the latest Fort Ancient villages, below the mouth of the Kanawha River (Rolf Lee 46Ms51), has a firm radiocarbon date of A.D. 1666. Marine shell gorgets are found disproportionately on certain village sites. This Late Pre-Contact appearance of more than 26 examples of shell gorgets is either as trophy of raid, through trade or migration of Southeast people. European trade goods with many glass beads along with copper and brass tubular beads, and flat pieces of copper and brass have been found at Rolf Lee 46Ms51, more than any other site in West Virginia.
Another major nearby occupation is at the Orchard Site (46MS61) dating between A.D. 1550 and 1650. It is above the first Ohio River flood plain on a very wide valley (creek-flat) and about five miles from the three Adena mounds mentioned. This site was disturbed, off and on, until the 1960s causing a less reliable carbon dating. It is almost identical to two sites found in Ohio with firm radiocarbon dates. This site, "Orchard", has over 300 known burials. European glass trade beads have been uncovered and apparently showing an acculturation period for this "Old Field". Also, Fort Ancient Thirteen Mile Creek
46MS43 site was recorded in 1953. The Buffalo Fort Ancient (46PU31[12]) site was excavated by the Geological Survey. It is one of the largest, latest (A.D. 1650 & 1680) and most continuous occupied location having well over 600 graves. It was still occupied during the historical influx and about the time Virginia explorers arrived. It is about 20 miles away from these in Putnam County on the Kanawha River. Rolf Lee 46Ms51 and the disturbed 46MS61 were excavated by the West Virginia Archeological Society and excavated by the Geological Survey.[13]
According to the scientist who used modern methods, West Virginia does not have the earliest of the Fort Ancient nor Monongahela culture's sites. But, the state does have some of the latest sites. "So far, archaeologists have not been able to determine what historically known Indian tribes have ancestral ties to the Kanawha Valley." One of the state's long standing puzzle is the identification of the protohistoric Monetons tribe.
[edit] Summary
Doctor Smith (1992) suggests plants already “naturally” occurring on flood plains and their life cycle were being intervened by human by about 5000 to 3000 B.P.. To quote Harris (1997),“farming is defined as a system of agricultural crop production that employs systematic soil preparation and tillage.” Yerkes (2000) observed that Hopewell culture utilized sumpweed, sunflower, chenopodium, knotweed and maygrass which were likely domesticated hundreds of years before, but, lacked true farming stone tools. The extent as true farmers is still in debate. The Eastern Agricultural Complex (EAC) included gourds, squash, marshelder, sunflower, maygrass, erect knotweed, and goosefoot (Chenopodium). The increase in caries in teeth can be accounted for by an increased reliance on maize-- simple carbohydrates in the diet (Sciulli 1997). "Maize (corn) did not make a substantial contribution to the diet until after 1150 B.P.," to quote Mills (2003). The region's Fort Ancient included definable farming stone tools and domesticated the cereal, goosefoot (Wymer 1992) which will include their upper Ohio River tributaries neighbor and sister culture, the Monongahela Culture.
In summary to quote Dr. Robert F. Maslowski, "The Adena Indians used pipes for ceremonies. They were carved of stone and they were exceptional works of art. Pipes and the smoking of tobacco became more common during the Late Prehistoric period. They were often made of clay and rather plain." "Nothing is known about Paleo-Indian and Archaic houses in the Kanawha Valley, but archeologists have found evidence of Woodland and Fort Ancient houses." "Woodland Indians lived in wigwams...The Woodland Indians grew sunflowers, gourds, squash and several seeds such as lambsquarter, may grass, sumpweed, smartweed and little barley." "Fort Ancient Indians lived in much larger square or rectangular houses...The Fort Ancient Indians can be considered true farmers. They cultivated large agricultural fields around their villages. They no longer grew such a variety of seeds but concentrated on growing corn, beans, sunflowers, gourds and many types of squash including the pumpkin. They also grew domestic turkeys and kept dogs as pets."
[edit] Notes
- ^ "Mounds For The Dead" by Prof Dragoo Vol #37 Carnegy 1963 (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania)
- ^ MITOCHONDRIAL DNA ANALYSIS OF THE OHIO HOPEWELL OF THE HOPEWELL MOUND GROUP. DISSERTATION, Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree. Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University, By Lisa A. Mills, M.A., B.A The Ohio State University 2003, Dissertation Committee: Approved by Dr. Paul Sciulli, Professor William Dancey; Professor D. Andrew Merrwiwther, Advisor; Professor N’omi Greber, Department of Anthropology
http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/send-pdf.cgi?osu1054605467 - ^ The Laurentian Archaic is an archaeological tradition of the Middle Archaic period (ca. 6,000 B.C. - 2,500 B.C.) which occurs within western New York, western Pennsylvania, northern West Virginia and eastern Ohio states, and, central and eastern Ontario, otherwise region of the eastern Great Lakes. Two phases of the Laurentian Archaic have been identified: the Vergennes Phase (ca. 5,500 B.P. to 5,000 B.P.) and the Brewerton Phase (ca. 5,000 - 4,000 B.P.). The Brewerton phase is the later of the two Laurentian Archaic and the points have also been found in the Northern Panhandle region of West Virginia. Both phases are found in Ontario. The most diagnostic Brewerton phase artifacts are broad, side and corner-notched points. These have often been resharpened to a considerable extent, some having been modified as hafted end-scrapers. Adams Heritage, 3783 Maple Crest Court RR#1 Inverary Ontario K0H 1X0
http://adamsheritage.com/silent/silent_years.htm - ^ A paper presented the Fifth World Archeology Conference, Washington, DC, June 2003, Robert F. Maslowski, Archeologist, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (retired)
- ^ Regional Cherts and Chert Sources, Council for West Virginia Archeology, 4th Annual Spring Workshop, June 15, 2002, Charleston, WV
- ^ Huronian Confederacy Iroquois dialect Akounake means "people of a strange language" and Attiouandron means "people of a similar language," based on Canadian Jesuit writings before 1650 from the Récollets. Various "Smith Maps" of these decade's cartography, stemming from Captain John Smith, has the Virginia Indians calling those beyond the Allegheny Mountains as Messawomeck. "Riviere de la Ronceverte" (Greenbrier River), scholars declare the early French Jesuits did not see the main Ohio River during these decades.
- ^ Joseph Le Caron (b. near Paris in 1586; d. in France, 29 March, 1632; first missionary to the Hurons) wrote the first dictionary of the Huron language. The "Bibliotheca Universa Franciscana" of Jean de S. Antoine, II (Madrid, 1732), 243, says on the evidence of Arturus in his "Martyrologium Franciscanum" under date of 31 August, that Le Caron wrote also "Qu?rimonia Nov? Franci?" (Complaint of New France). Citation: Publication information Written by Odoric M. Jouve. Transcribed by Mario Anello. The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume IX. Published 1910. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Nihil Obstat, October 1, 1910. Remy Lafort, Censor. Imprimatur. +John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York Bibliography Histoire chronol. de la province de St-Denis (Bibl. Nat., Paris); Mortuologe des Récollets de la province de St-Denis (late seveenteenth-century MS., in the archives of Quebec seminary); CHAMPLAIN (Euvres, ed. LAVARDI?RE (6 vols., Quebec, 1870); SAGARD, Histoire du Canada, ed. TROSS (4 vols.. Paris, 1866); LECLERCQ, Premier Etablissment de la Foi dans la Nouvelle France (2 vols., Paris, 1691)
- ^ W.S. Webb Museum of Anthropology, 211 Lafferty Hall, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
- ^ Shanks Ferry People first appears in Lower Susquehanna River, Lancaster County area, about 1300 AD. Theory suspects Shanks Ferry Site was an element of Clemson Island Culture and/or "resemblances to earlier ceramics of the Maryland and Virginia Piedmont areas, and this has led some archeologists to believe that the Shenks Ferry may have migrated into this area from the south", "Discovering Pennsylvania's Archeological Heritage" by Barry C. Kent, p. 35. Their former homeland (the Shenks Ferry people) was not controlled by the Susquehannocks, all or most of whom-still at war with their northern neighbors-had moved south to a single heavily fortified village in present day Lancaster County, from which they enjoyed unimpeded access to sources of European goods on the Chesapeake Bay. "A Framework for Pennsylvania Indian History", The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg, 1971 p.491 Daniel K. Richter, Pennsylvania History, Vol. 57, Number 3, July 1990, p. 243. "Burials continued to be made in the village and under the hearth, while the Susquehannocks on the same site had out of the village cemeteries", "Foundations of Pennsylvania Prehistory, The Shenks Ferry People" by Henry W. Hiesey and J. Paul Witmer. The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg, 1971 p491.
- ^ McFate Artifacts In a Monongahela Context; McJunkin, Johnston, and Squirrel Hill by Richard L. George; ABSTRACT: In a 1978 Pennsylvania Archaeologist report, it was suggested that the McFate presence on the McJunkin site may have been the result of foreign potters, namely women, living among the resident Monongahela. Based on two excavations of the site by Allegheny Chapter members in the late 1960's and by the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in 1976, a large artifact sample is used to expand upon the 1978 thesis. Comparisons with two other sites with McFate ceramics are made and a recent C-14 date for McJunkin is utilized to suggest a major population movement from the north in the 16th century and an amalgamation of peoples speaking dissimilar languages.
also: Possible historical connection found in the Jesuit Relations primary source; the St. Lawrence in 1535, Sulpician priest, J.A. Cuoq, in his "Lexique de la langue Iroquoise", following in the wake of Faillon develops at greater length the argument based on the similarity of the words in Cartier's lists to the Huron-Iroquois dialects, and their utter incompatibility with any form of the Algonquin tongue. An interval of over sixty years elapsed between Jacques Cartier's expeditions and Champlain's first coming in 1603. A great change had taken place. Stadacona and Hochelaga had disappeared, and the tribes along the shores of the St. Lawrence were no longer those of Huron-Iroquois stock, but Algonquin." (Journ, 183-84; Clev. ed XXXVIII, 181). - ^ References: 46MS57; Lewis Old Town; Feurt; DIC-1906; 590; 70; AD 1360; AD 1398; 552; Kuhn and Spurlock 1982:44
- ^ References: Guilday(1971); McMichael(1963); 46PU31; Buffalo Site; Clover; UGA-304; 270; 120; AD 1680; AD 1651; 299; Broyles 1976:5, Hemmings 1985 http://mapserver.museum.state.il.us/faunmapweb/onesite.php?siteID=338
- ^ An Archaeological Treasure a survey of the Lower Kanawha Valley in Putnam and Mason counties, Darla Spencer, RPA, Council for West Virginia Archaeology. http://www.pointpleasantwv.org/MasonCoHistory/ARCH/Arch_1.htm
[edit] References
Council for West Virginia Archaeology and West Virginia Archeological Society. http://cwva.org/index.html
"The Kanawha Valley and its Prehistoric People" by Dr. Robert F. Maslowski
http://cwva.org/area_prehistories/kvprehistory-maslowski.html
Archeology of the Great Kanawha Navigation" by Robert F. Maslowski, Archeologist, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (retired). A paper presented the Fifth World Archeology Conference, Washington, DC, June 2003 http://cwva.org/research_reports/kanawha_nav/kanawha_nav.html
A Presentation by Dr. Robert Maslowski: "Forensic Archaeology and the MIA Mission in Southeast Asia"
"Mounds for the Dead", Prof Dragoo, Carnegy Vol #37 (1963)
Mason County, WV - An Archaeological Treasure by Darla Spencer, RPA, is Secretary/Treasurer of the West Virginia Archeological Society and member of the Council for West Virginia Archaeology. Photos and descriptions: http://www.pointpleasantwv.org/MasonCoHistory/ARCH/Arch_10.htm
West Virginia Archeological Society, C. Michael Anslinger.
Doctor Sciulli, Ohio University
Upper Panhandle Archaic http://www.wvculture.org/shpo/es/home.html
West Virginia Historic Preservation Officer, Department of Culture and History, Cultural Center, Charleston, West Virginia, 25305. Grave Creek Mound Archaeology Complex http://www.wvculture.org/sites/gravecreek.html
Cultural Resource Analysts, Inc. (CRAI) of Kentucky, West Virginia, Illinois, Rocky Mountain West (Longmont, Colorado), and Ohio
http://crai-ky.com/
^ The Golden Antiquity Periods dates are from the Amus Plant on the Kanawha River. The Kanawha Valley Archaeology Society folks provided AEP Power Company the artifact display during construction of the plant. At the plant museum, their explanations are found about the site. The public is encouraged to visit the Amus Plant Museum when near Winfield, West Virginia. Other periods are from Encyclopaedia Britannica (1988 Ed.)
