Water supply and sanitation in Benin

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Benin: Water and Sanitation
Data
Water coverage (broad definition) 67%[1]
Sanitation coverage (broad definition) 33%[1]
Continuity of supply (%) 24 hours in Cotonou, but depending on electricity[2]
Average urban water use (l/c/d) 29[3]
Average urban water tariff (US$/m³) 0.41 for the first five m³[4]
Share of household metering n/a
Annual investment in WSS less than US$ 2/capita in rural areas (1999-2002)
Share of self-financing by utilities Operation and Maintenance: High[4][5]
Share of tax-financing n/a
Share of external financing High
Institutions
Decentralization to municipalities For rural areas, since 1999
National water and sanitation company National Water Company of Benin (SONEB)
Water and sanitation regulator None
Responsibility for policy setting Water: Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water

Sanitation: Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority under the Ministry of Health
Sector law Yes, but ineffective[6]
Number of urban service providers 1
Number of rural service providers n/a

Water supply and sanitation in Benin has been subject to considerable progress since the 1990s, in particular in rural areas, where coverage is higher than in many other African countries,[7] and almost all development partners follow a national demand-responsive strategy, which has been adopted in 1992.[8] New strategies to increase water supply in rural and urban areas have been adopted in 2005 and 2006.[9] Tariffs in urban and rural areas are usually high enough to cover the costs for operation and maintenance.[4][5]

However, challenges remain. Whereas a coherent institutional framework has been developed for rural areas and projects have been implemented with strong help by external donors, urban responsibilities are less well defined and the national utility SONEB needs significant support.[7] Sanitation receives less attention. Wastewater treatment hardly exists.[10] In order to reach the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) concerning water and sanitation, the Ministry of Economic and Financial Development estimates that US$80 million and US$22 million, respectively are needed per year from 2006 to 2015.[11][12][13] For the sake of comparison, less than US$ 10m per year have been invested in water supply and sanitation in rural areas where 55% of the population of Benin lives. No figures are available on actual investments in urban areas. Most likely, investments would have to increase manifold in order to reach the MDGs.

Contents

[edit] Access

According to the Joint Monitoring Program of the World Health Organization and UNICEF, two thirds of the Beninese population had access to an improved water source in 2004, whereas one third had access to improved sanitation. The share rose from 63% concerning water and 12% concerning sanitation in 1990. Coverage in urban areas is considerably higher than in rural areas.[1]

Access to Water and Sanitation in Benin (2004)[1]
Urban
(45% of the population)		 Rural
(55% of the population)		 Total
Water Broad definition 78% 57% 67%
House connections 25% 2% 12%
Sanitation Broad definition 59% 11% 33%
Sewerage 0% 0% 0%

Significant differences in water supply coverage were found among regions. The situation depends on the accessibility to ground water, the geographic orientation of donor investment programs and the effective demand of the inhabitants of a community or region.[14] In urban areas, lack of access to safe water is mostly concentrated in the outskirts of cities.[15]

The national government uses another definition of access,[16] under which water supply coverage was 50% in urban and peri-urban areas and 41% in rural and semi-urban areas in 2005. In order to reach the MDGs, the national government's strategy is to increase coverage to 75% in urban and peri-urban areas and 67.5% in rural and semi-urban areas by 2015.[17] Concerning sanitation, the national government seems to use the same definitions as shown above, since the Ministry of Economic and Financial Development reported that in 2003 67% of the population did not have adequate facilities for the disposal of excrements.[18]

[edit] Definition of urban and rural areas

Like in other countries, the Beninese water supply sector is divided into an urban and a rural sector. However, in the documents rural areas include semi-urban areas and urban areas include peri-urban areas. In 2002, rural and semi-urban areas were defined as settlements with less than 10,000 inhabitants and 22 secondary towns with more than 10,000 inhabitants,[19] whereas the remaining areas were called urban and peri-urban.

[edit] Service quality

[edit] Continuity of supply

Due to low water pressure, which limits the consumption and water losses, water supply in Cotonou should be available continuously for 24 hours per day. However, the water supply depends on the electricity, because electrical water pumps are used to fill the water towers. Since power failures happen frequently, water supply is often interrupted. A solution would be to increase water pressure and storage water in the water towers[2]

[edit] Drinking water quality

There has been no broad assessment about water quality in Benin. Under the framework of a study which analyzed water supply in peri-urban areas of Cotonou, water samples were collected from water kiosks, a water seller, a communal well and Lake Nokoue in the peri-urban Cotonouan districts of Ladji and Vossa. The study concludes that the samples from the water kiosks and the water seller were of good quality, although they still had residual chlorine from the water treatment process.[2] It should be mentioned that water sellers are usually connected to the SONEB utility network and sell that water to unserved people.[4]

Saltwater intrusion has been reported close to Cotonou, where drinking water is withdrawn.[20]

[edit] Wastewater treatment

Wastewater treatment is extremely rare in Benin. In most cases, wastewater is not even disposed appropriately. According to a 2001 national health survey, in the cities of Cotonou, Parakou and Porto-Novo, only two out of 1,000 households dispose their wastewater in a correct way, while most of them discharge it directly into the nature or drains. This leads to pollution and can cause water-borne diseases like malaria and typhoid fever.[21]

According to a 2004 article, Cotonou is the only town in Benin which has a functioning wastewater treatment plant, where sludge from septic tanks and latrines is treated.[21] Another article reports that the treatment plant, operated by the private Industrial Society of Urban Equipment and Sanitation (SIBEAU) treats about 240-300 m³ per day. The company charges tariffs for treating the sludge from septic tanks truckers. The wastewater receives primary and secondary treatment and is afterwards dumped into the ocean.[22] In addition, some local institutions like a hospital and hotels operate their own water treatment facilities.[21]

[edit] Water resources

River in the Pendjari National Park in the dry-season
River in the Pendjari National Park in the dry-season

It is estimated that the available water resources in Benin are sufficient to meet the current and future demand, even if agricultural and industrial consumption are included. The current water use is about 1% of the available resources.[23] The total amount of renewable water resources in the country is estimated to 3,954 m³ per person and year,[24] an amount whereby water shortages only occur irregularly or locally according to a definition of Falkenmark and Widstrand.[25] 2000 km² or 1.8% of the total surface area of Benin (112,620 km²) is covered by water. Rainfall averages 1,039 mm per year, but varies considerably among region and season.[26]

[edit] Water use

A study published in 2005 indicates an average consumption of 17 liters per capita and day (l/c/d) in rural areas and 29 l/c/d in cities. The authors explain the very low water use in rural areas with a lack of water sources, long distances from villages to wells and limited resources in dry seasons. In the outskirts of the town areas, they found situations similar to those in rural areas. They expect an increasing water demand due to urbanization and increasing living standards.[3] The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations indicates that in 2001, 32% of the total water withdrawal was used for domestic purposes, while 45% was used for agriculture and 23% by the industry.[27]

[edit] History and recent developments

[edit] History

Rural areas: Under the framework of the United Nations International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981-1990), Benin launched a campaign and installed 5,350 water points. The result of these efforts revealed some weaknesses within the strategy, i.e. (i) lack of user participation in the installation of water points; (ii) lack of health and hygiene education; (iii) lack of investments in hygiene and sanitation; (iv) lack of community inclusion in the administration and operation of the water points; and (v) poor rate of functioning water points.[28]

Since these efforts and investments in the sector had proved to be little sustainable, a new demand-responsive strategy for rural water supply and sanitation was prepared with the help of the World Bank and adopted in 1992. The strategy is based on the four principles of

  • Decentralization of decision making
  • Financial contribution of the communities to the initial investments (about 3-10% of the total costs[29])
  • Search for cost-cutting measures concerning operation and maintenance of facilities
  • Privatization of construction and operation activities

Furthermore the strategy contains two more basic principles, which are not explicitly mentioned as such:

  • Integration of hygiene education in rural water programs
  • Redefinition of the role of the General Water Authority (DGH), which becomes the sector regulator and facilitator

The new strategy has since then been implemented through a number of projects called Assistance Program for the Development of the Water supply and Sanitation sector in Rural areas (PADEAR) with the strong help of several development partners. The strategy was revised in 2003 in view of a new institutional framework, the national poverty reduction strategy and the MDGs, support of delegation of works and an analysis of the time which had passed since the application of the strategy.[30][31]

In 1995, a national sanitation policy was adopted. Its objectives were similar to those of the 1992 strategy for rural water supply and sanitation.[32]

Urban and peri-urban areas: Until 2002, water and electricity were both supplied by the Beninese Society of Electricity and Water (SBEE). Afterwards, much of the electricity sector has been privatized, whereas the urban water sector remained public and has been provided by the National Water Society of Benin (SONEB).[33]

[edit] Latest national strategies

In both urban and rural areas new strategies have been adopted in 2005 and 2006 with the objective to reach the MDGs concerning water supply by 2015.

Rural and semi-urban areas: The new strategy for the period from 2005 to 2015 follows the national strategy of 1992 and aims to reach the MDGs. Its principles are similar to those of the 1992 strategy, but adapted to the modified political and institutional frameworks. Like the former one, the strategy is based on a demand-responsive approach and has five principles:

  • Decentralization of the decision-making process to the municipalities, which act based on a demand-responsive approach
  • User participation in financing, operation and maintenance including rehabilitation of the facilities and construction works
  • Research to find ways to reduce water tariffs through taking into consideration low cost technologies
  • Privatization of construction, operation, maintenance and social mediation with a particular effort to increase the professionalism of local operators in the sector
  • Reinforcement of the technical and administrative decentralization of the central administration in its role as sector regulator and establishment of functional relations between the decentralized municipal structures[34]

In May 2004, the call for a Water Initiative for semi-urban areas which are not covered by SONEB emerged. The initiative, which has not yet been implemented in 2006 aims to reach the MDGs in these areas through the construction of rural water supply schemes in about 500 towns by 2015.[35]

Urban and peri-urban areas: The 2006 to 2015 strategy for urban water supply, besides reaching the MDGs by 2015 has the objectives to facilitate the financial viability of public water supply and provide access for poorer households. The strategy is based on four principles:

  • The involved actors play their respective parts in a coherent legal and institutional framework
  • The achievement of the MDGs is based on a continuous and harmonious sector development
  • The sustainability of the sector is backed by an economical and efficacious public water supply
  • The access to water supply for people with lower incomes is a fundamental imperative of national solidarity[36]

Concerning sanitation, the National Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Program covers the period from 2004 to 2008. It is divided into three sub-programs:

  • Hygiene and basic sanitation promotion in rural areas
  • Hygiene and basic sanitation promotion in urban areas
  • Institutional support for the Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority (DHAB) under the Ministry of Health and its decentralized structures[37]

[edit] Responsibility for water supply and sanitation

[edit] Policy and regulation

Map of Benin
Map of Benin

The national Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water sets general water sector policies and supervises their application. National sanitation policies are defined by the Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority (DHAB) under the Ministry of Health.[38]

Benin is currently in the process of implementing a decentralization policy, under which water supply and sanitation becomes responsibility of the 77 municipalities, which count between 25,000 and 600,000 inhabitants. Each municipality is headed by an elected council and a mayor. According to Law No. 97-029 of 1999 on the organization of municipalities, they have full responsibility to provide drinking water and sanitation. The law also provides for the municipalities' right to request technical assistance from the national level or the private sector. Furthermore, the national government is responsible for the transfer of the necessary financial resources for the execution of the tasks to the municipalities.[39]

In rural and semi-urban areas, the General Water Authority (DGH) under the Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water is expected to implement the national policies, to coordinate water use for different purposes and to promote Integrated Water Resources Management. In addition, it has the task to set up and maintain a database on water resources and their mobilization. In order to ensure that the national policies are implemented at the local level, the DGH is represented by 11 Water Service divisions and uses six Department divisions of the Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water. Under the framework of decentralization, responsibilities were shifted from the DGH to its local divisions.[9] Among the documents used for this article, there is no evidence that the same tasks are assigned to SONEB or another institution in urban and peri-urban areas.

There is no independent agency for economic regulation of the water and sanitation sector. The national 2007 Growth Strategy for Poverty Reduction calls for the establishment of such an authority.[40]

[edit] Service provision

Since the decentralization process, the municipalities and their established Water User Associations became responsible for operation and maintenance of water supply and sanitation.[41] In rural and semi-urban areas, they receive support by the DGH. In urban and peri-urban areas, the National Water Society of Benin (SONEB) overtakes the service provision from the municipalities.[42] SONEB supplied 69 urban districts in 2007. Eighty percent of the urban water supply demand is concentrated in Cotonou, Porto Novo, Parakou and Abomey/Bohicon. Like the DGH, SONEB is placed under the Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water.[15] SONEB is a public company, but autonomous in decision-making and financial administration.[43]

Concerning sanitation, the Hygiene and Basic Sanitation Authority provides sanitation in public places like schools and health centers. The authority shares responsibility for sanitation with SONEB, communities and departments of the Ministry of Environment, Housing and Urbanism and the Ministry of Public Works and Transportation.[38]

[edit] Other functions

Private sector: In rural areas, private sector participation is supported under the PADEAR strategy. For instance, the private drilling companies FORAG and FORATECH install about 1,000 new water points per year and private operators are also involved in maintenance activities.[44] Besides this, private planning offices work out feasibility studies and supervise the construction of facilities. Local artisans take over odd jobs.[45][46] In urban areas, no private participation of SONEB is anticipated.[38] However, in Cotonou the private company SIBEAU operates the only wastewater treatment plant in the country.[22]

Non-governmental organizations: Benin has a lot of local Non-governmental organizations (NGOs).[47] They usually have the task to inform, advise and support the communities concerning their water supply responsibilities.[48]

[edit] Economic efficiency

Economic efficiency of water supply can be measured through several indicators. In Benin however, access to the according indicators, in the case that they exist, is difficult. One established indicator is the share of non-revenue water (NRW), water which is produced but not billed due to several reasons like leakage and illegal connections. According to the Beninese Ministry of Economic and Financial Development, NRW of SONEB was 21% in 2004.[49] Although there is no agreement on appropriate levels of NRW among professionals, Tynan and Kingdom propose a best practice target of 23% in developing countries.[50] According to the figures of the ministry, SONEB complies with that target.

[edit] Financial aspects

[edit] Tariffs and cost recovery

Urban and peri-urban areas According to a thesis, the tariff for a new connection to the SONEB network was US$209 (100,000 CFA) in 2007. There is no distinction between the different types of consumers (residential, commercial, industrial), but two block tariffs according to the amount of water consumption. For the first five m³, US$0.41 without additional taxes was charged per m³. For consumption exceeding five m³, the tariff was US$1.03 including taxes per m³. The tariff structure has been active since 2002. In addition, a fixed tariff of US$0.99 for the maintenance of a water meter is added.[51][13] According to the thesis, these tariffs cover most of the capital costs and all operating costs.[52] In 2004, the revenue generated by water sales was US$20.8 million and the profit was US$16.7 million.[53][49]

Rural and semi-urban areas Where AUE operate and maintain the services, they are expected to bear the costs of these tasks. According to the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA), the sale of water can be very profitable and cover operation and maintenance costs.[41] Water consumption is usually charged in the case of existing rural water supply schemes. Charging tariffs is less common if wells or hand pumps are used.[29] A 2004 World Bank study assumes an average rural water tariff of US$1.04 (500 CFA)[53] per m³ and equally concludes that this tariff usually covers operation and maintenance costs, including replacement. The study also mentions that in most cases the potable water is only used for cooking and drinking and alternate sources are used for other needs. It assumes an average consumption of only 5 l/p/d from improved sources. Consequently, water tariffs are affordable for most households.[5]

[edit] Investment and financing

Substantial Investments in the country's water sector have been made since the 1980s. Investments in sanitation have started much later and have been lower. Despite this, there has been no review of sector investments until 2004.[54]

Since 2002, the financial resources allocated to the Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water follow a three year program budget, focusing on a unification of all funding (operational and investment costs) and a better replicability of the expenditures and its impacts.[55]

It is difficult to draw up a comprehensive analysis of public expenditures in the water sector. The following figures derive from a 2004 World Bank study, which uses several budgetary documents.[56] Since only the expenditure of the DGH is shown, investment in urban areas is not included.

Executed Budget of DGH according to funding source in million US-Dollar[57]
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Domestic 1.01 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.87 2.17
External 10.86 10.34 6.32 8.59 6.08 6.40
Total 11.87 11.22 7.19 9.45 6.96 8.57

The share of domestic funding increased from 9% in 1997 to 25% in 2002. However, the sector still depends strongly on external funding. Overall expenditure decreased from US$11.87 million in 1997 to US$8.57 million in 2002. The share of total government spending to the sector varied between 1.2 and 3.5%.[58]

The Ministry of Economic and Financial Development reported in 2006 that there is no appropriate mechanism for the development of the urban water supply. External support is indispensible for the implementation of investment programs.[49]

[edit] Financing the latest national strategies

Rural and semi-urban areas The necessary financial ressources to reach the MDGs in rural and semi-urban areas from 2006 to 2015 have been estimated to about US$396 million (189 billion CFA) or US$40 million per year.[13] The Ministry of Economic and Financial Development concludes that the MDGs will not be achieved if the expenditures for the sector continue in the same amounts as in the years 2002 to 2005. However, if all available resources are mobilized, Benin will be able to reach the MDGs concerning rural water supply.[59]

Urban and peri-urban areas The required financial resources to finance the achievement of the MDGs in urban and peri-urban areas have been estimated to be about US$400 million (191 billion CFA) or US$40 million per year from 2006 to 2015.[13][60] The implementation of the 2006-2015 strategy to reach the MDGs in urban areas is expected to be financed by the national state, municipalities, development partners, financial institutions and SONEB. For small and medium water systems, the financing will be provided by the municipalities, by the central state through public budgets, and by development partners. Large systems will be financed by the national state, municipalities, development banks and development agencies through credits and loans. Peri-urban areas and people with lower incomes will receive subsidies and donations with the help of development partners.

The SONEB will finance investments for maintenance and rehabilitation of electromechanical installations with its own financial resources. Therefore, it is planned to improve the self-financing of SONEB through an appropriate tariff system and other measures.[36]

Sanitation In order to achieve the MDGs concerning sanitation, the Ministry of Economic and Financial Development estimates that US$218 million (104 billion CFA) or US$22 million per year will be needed from 2006 to 2015.[13][12]

[edit] External cooperation

The 1992 demand-responsive strategy for rural water supply and sanitation (see above) has been implemented since 1993 with the strong help of external development partners in several departments. The different programs are summarized under the Assistance Program for the Development of the Water supply and Sanitation sector in Rural areas (PADEAR).[61]

[edit] Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)

DANIDA was the first development partner, which together with the World Bank financed the implementation of the 1992 strategy in the departments of Zou and Atlantique in 1993. Five years later, PADEAR financed by DANIDA started in the departments of Alibori and Borgou.[61]

The Second Phase of the Water and Sanitation Sector Programme Support began in 2005 and it has a duration of five years. The objective of the program is to reduce poverty in rural and semi-urban areas through improved water supply coverage, promotion of hygiene and basic sanitation and sustainable water resources use.The program consists of the five components sector budget support, institutional support, water supply and hygiene education, sanitation and support to the private sector. The total budget is about US$65 million (DKK 306.4 million).[62][63]

[edit] French Development Agency

The French Development Agency (AFD) contributes about USD22 million (EUR13.8 million)[64] to the program budget 2005-2008, which aims to fight poverty and to ensure improved access to water supply and sanitation. Besides a contribution to the program budget of the Collines Department, the program support includes a component to support the methodology of the program budgets for objectives (BPO) and decentralization, among others, and another component to assist the definition of a sustainable administration policy of rural water supply schemes.[65]

[edit] Germany

The German development partners Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) and German Development Bank (KfW) financed PADEAR in the departments of Oueme and Mono in 1996. Since 2001, they also financed PADEAR in five municipalities of the Atakora Department and two municipalities of the Donga Department.[61] In addition, the German development cooperation supports urban water supply and Integrated Water Resources Management. Concerning urban water supply, SONEB and its regional branches are supported. Both rural and urban development cooperation entail a large number of infrastructural measures.[66]

[edit] The Netherlands

Thanks to the Netherland's support, more than 300,000 people were provided with new water points. From 2007 to 2011, the Netherlands finance a program to improve rural water supply and sanitation. The national government of Benin also received funds for the implementation of a hand washing campaign. In addition, the gradual implementation of decentralization to local institutions and municipalities is supported.[67]

[edit] World Bank

Since 2003, the World Bank has supported the Republic of Benin through Poverty Reduction Support Credits (PRSCs). The first (2004-2005) and the second (2005-2006) PRSCs, which together provided US$50 million were both designed to help the implementation of the 2002 Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper and included support for improving water supply.[68][69]

[edit] Second Decentralized City Management

Together with the French Development Agency, the World Bank contributes to the Second Decentralized City Management program, which started in 2005 and is expected to end in 2010. The program's objective is to increase access to infrastructure and basic services in the Beninese cities of Cotonou, Porto-Novo, Parakou, Abomey-Calavi, Kandi and Lokossa. Under the program, basic infrastructure including sewerage is rehabilitated and/or constructed. Community participation and integration is supported, in particular in poor neighborhoods.[70]

[edit] Water and Sanitation Program

The World Bank's multi-donor partnership Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) is active in Benin and has established a country presence in 2004. The activities focus on the implementation of a strategy to reach the MDGs, in particular in rural areas, where the WSP supports the development and implementation of a communication action plan and a maintenance pilot project. Together with other development partners, the WSP seeks to introduce a strategy for urban water supply and sanitation. In addition, the WSP helps to develop a national hand washing initiative. The WSP works in a close partnership with the World Bank's Water and Urban Unit - West Africa and national development agencies.[7]

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b c d Based on:
    • (2002) Recencement général de la population et des habitations. 
    • Bénin (2001). Enquête Démographique et de Santé. 
    • Bénin. Ministère du plan, de la restructuration economique et de la promotion de l'emploi. (1996). Demographic and Health Survey. , p. 18
    • (1999) 1992 Census as recorded in Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000. Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Questionnaire. 
  2. ^ a b c Thibault, Adrien (September 2007). "Sustainability of the extension of water supply network from urban to periurban area in Cotonu, Benin". Cranfield University. , p. 48
  3. ^ a b M'bareka, R.; Behle, C.; Mulindabigwi, V.; Schopp, M.; Singer, U. (2005). "Sustainable resource management in Benin embedded in the process of decentralisation". Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 30 (6-7): 365-371. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2005.06.016. , p. 366
  4. ^ a b c d Thibault, Adrien (September 2007). "Sustainability of the extension of water supply network from urban to periurban area in Cotonu, Benin". Cranfield University. , p. 43
  5. ^ a b c World Bank (2004-12-20). "Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors". , p. 126
  6. ^ Water and Sanitation Program - Africa (December 2006). "Getting Africa on Track to Meet the MDGs on Water and Sanitation". , p. 2
  7. ^ a b c Water and Sanitation Program. "Benin Challenges and Opportunities". 
  8. ^ World Bank (2004-12-20). "Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors". , p. 106
  9. ^ a b (French) Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) (August 2004). "Programme d’Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)". , p. 12-13
  10. ^ Heidecke, Claudia (2006). "Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin". EPTD discussion papers 145. Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). , p. 21
  11. ^ (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Environment and Nature Protection (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 17-18
  12. ^ a b (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Environment and Nature Protection (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 24
  13. ^ a b c d e 1 CFA Franc BCEAO = US$0.002093 (2006-12-31); source: http://oanda.com
  14. ^ World Bank (2004-12-20). "Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors". , p. 113
  15. ^ a b Republic of Benin (April 2007). "Growth Strategy for Poverty Reduction". , p. 52
  16. ^ In rural and semi-urban areas, the water supply coverage rate represents the share of population covered by water supply points, which serve up to 250 inhabitants on the basis of 20 liters per day and capita (l/p/d) at a distance of not more than 500 meters from the place of consumption. The following sources are recognized as water points:
    • A borehole equipped with a hand pump corresponds to one water point
    • A modern well corresponds to one water point
    • A public stand post in a rural water supply scheme corresponds to two water points
    • An autonomouos water stand post (Poste d'Eau Autonome) corresponds to four water points
    In urban and peri-urban areas, access is defined as connection to the urban water supply network. One connection provides water to on average twelve persons (two households with six persons per household). Source: (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 15-16
  17. ^ (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 5
  18. ^ (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Environment and Nature Protection (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 9
  19. ^ World Bank (2004-12-20). "Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors". , p. 104
  20. ^ (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 11
  21. ^ a b c (French) Bénin (2001). Enquête Démographique et de Santé. , cited in: "0,1% des ménages béninois accèdent aux équipements d'assainissement", Panapress, 2004-11-22. Retrieved on 2008-05-20. 
  22. ^ a b Solo, Tova Maria (April 1999). "Small-scale entrepreneurs in the urban water and sanitation market". Environment and Urbanization 11 (1): 133-144. International Institute for Environment and Development. doi:10.1177/095624789901100120. , p. 124
  23. ^ (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 3
  24. ^ UNESCO (2003). "World Water Development Report". 
  25. ^ Falkenmark, M.; Widstrand, C. (1992). "Population and water resources: a delicate balance.". Population Bulletin 47 (3): 1-36. Washington, D.C.: Population Reference Bureau. 
  26. ^ Heidecke, Claudia (2006). "Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin". EPTD discussion papers 145. Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). , p. 2
  27. ^ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2008-05-02). Summary Fact Sheet Benin. Retrieved on 2008-05-19.
  28. ^ (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 5
  29. ^ a b (French) Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) (August 2004). "Programme d’Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)". , p. 7
  30. ^ (French) Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) (August 2004). "Programme d’Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)". , p. 6-9
  31. ^ (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 5-6
  32. ^ (French) Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) (August 2004). "Programme d’Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)". , p. 20
  33. ^ Heidecke, Claudia (2006). "Development and evaluation of a regional water poverty index for Benin". EPTD discussion papers 145. Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). , p. 7
  34. ^ (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 11-12
  35. ^ (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 12
  36. ^ a b (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 13
  37. ^ (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Environment and Nature Protection (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 17
  38. ^ a b c Water and Sanitation Program - Africa (December 2006). "Getting Africa on Track to Meet the MDGs on Water and Sanitation". , p. 3
  39. ^ (French) Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) (August 2004). "Programme d’Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)". , p. 23-27
  40. ^ Republic of Benin (April 2007). "Growth Strategy for Poverty Reduction". , p. 37
  41. ^ a b (French) Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) (August 2004). "Programme d’Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)". , p. 27
  42. ^ Thibault, Adrien (September 2007). "Sustainability of the extension of water supply network from urban to periurban area in Cotonu, Benin". Cranfield University. , p. 3
  43. ^ (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 4
  44. ^ Water and Sanitation Program - Africa (December 2006). "Getting Africa on Track to Meet the MDGs on Water and Sanitation". , p. 3-4
  45. ^ (French) Office International de l'Eau (OIEAU). Alimentation en eau potable et assainissement en milieu rural au Bénin. Retrieved on 2008-05-21.
  46. ^ (French) Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) (August 2004). "Programme d’Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)". , p. 27-28
  47. ^ (French) Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) (August 2004). "Programme d’Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)". , p. 28
  48. ^ (French) IGIP Afrique (2002). "Intégration des aspects genre et développement dans le Programme d'Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et Assainissement (PADSEA) et dans le Projet d'Assistance au Développement du secteur de l'alimentation en Eau et de l'Assainissement en zone Rurale.(PADEAR) au Bénin. Rapport Provisoire Version 2". , p. 31
  49. ^ a b c (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 9
  50. ^ The study uses data from 246 water utilities, of which half are in 44 developing countries. The utilities range from small ones, which serve less than 125,000 people to large ones, serving more than 500,000. All regions and within coutries, all income levels are included. In each of the five categories (NRW, labor productivity, service coverage, water prices and connection costs and continuity of service), at least 30 utilities from developing countries and 30 from developed countries are included. The best practice targets for developing countries are based on the performance of the top 25 utilities of developing country utilities. The study uses data from the World Bank's Water and Sanitation Utilities database and the Asian Development Bank; see: Tynan, Nicola; Kingdom, Bill (2002-04-01). "A Water Scorecard. Setting Performance Targets for Water Utilities". Public Policy Journal (242). The World Bank Group. 
  51. ^ The document does not give information on metering coverage. However, it seems to be universal or almost universal.
  52. ^ Thibault, Adrien (September 2007). "Sustainability of the extension of water supply network from urban to periurban area in Cotonu, Benin". Cranfield University. , p. 43-44
  53. ^ a b 1 CFA Franc BCEAO = US$0.002083 (2004-12-31); source: http://oanda.com
  54. ^ World Bank (2004-12-20). "Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors". , p. 104
  55. ^ (French) Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) (August 2004). "Programme d’Appui au Développement du Secteur Eau et assainissement (PADSEA) (PhaseII)". , appendix 9
  56. ^ The sources are:
    • Public Investment Program (PIP)
    • Comptes administratifs, prepared by the budget department of the Ministry of Finance, recording the expenditure at the payment order stage. According to the World Bank document, they have numerous inconsistencies
    • 2001 and 2002: Integrated System of Public Finances Administration (SIGFIP)
    Investments of other ministries (e.g. Agriculture, Planning) are not included.; see: World Bank (2004-12-20). "Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors". , p. 118
  57. ^ 1 CFA Franc BCEAO = US$0.001606 (2002-12-31); source: http://oanda.com
  58. ^ World Bank (2004-12-20). "Benin - Enhancing the effectiveness of public spending - a review of three sectors". , p. 119-120; 127
  59. ^ Based on an extrapolation of the provided financial resources for the years 2006-2009; source: (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 24
  60. ^ (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 18; 24
  61. ^ a b c (French) Ministry of Economic and Financial Development; Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water (December 2006). "Strategie pour l'atteinte de la cible 10 de l'objectif N°7 des OMD au Benin. (Version définitive)". , p. 6
  62. ^ 1 Danish Krone = US$0.21150 (2008-05-26); source: http://oanda.com
  63. ^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark (2007-10-05). Benin - Danida DevForum. Retrieved on 2008-05-26.
  64. ^ 1 Euro = US$1.57672 (2008-05-26); source: http://oanda.com
  65. ^ (French) French Development Agency (2007-10-16). "Base projets - Hydraulique Rural". 
  66. ^ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit. GTZ. Priority areas. Retrieved on 2008-05-26.
  67. ^ (French) Dutch Embassy in Cotonou. Ambassade Cotonou (Fr) - Coopération. Retrieved on 2008-05-26.
  68. ^ World Bank (2004-02-24). "Poverty Reduction Strategy Credit - 1st PRSC". 
  69. ^ World Bank (2005-05-24). "Second Poverty Reduction Strategy Credit". 
  70. ^ World Bank (2005-09-22). "Projects - Benin : Second Decentralized City Management". 

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