Veganism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Vegan" redirects here. For other uses, see Vegan (disambiguation).
The logo of the world's first organization for vegans, the Vegan Society, registered in 1944.
The logo of the world's first organization for vegans, the Vegan Society, registered in 1944.

Veganism is a philosophy and lifestyle that seeks to exclude the use of animals for food, clothing, or any other purpose.[1][2] Vegans endeavor not to use or consume animal products of any kind.[3] The most common reasons for becoming a vegan are ethical commitment or moral convictions concerning animal rights, the environment, human health, and spiritual or religious concerns.[4][5][2] Of particular concern are the practices involved in factory farming and animal testing, and the intensive use of land and other resources required for animal farming.

Various polls have reported vegans to be between 0.2%[4] and 1.3%[6] of the U.S. population, and between 0.25%[5] and 2.24%[7] of the UK population.

Vegan diets (sometimes called strict or pure vegetarian diets) are a subset of vegetarian diets, which are credited with lowering the risk of colon cancer, heart attack, high blood cholesterol, high blood pressure, prostate cancer, and stroke.[8] Properly planned vegan diets are healthful and have been found to completely satisfy nutritional needs in every stage of life, including during pregnancy and lactation.[9] However, poorly planned vegan diets can be low in levels of calcium, iodine, vitamin B12 and vitamin D. Vegans are therefore encouraged to plan their diet and take dietary supplements as appropriate.[10]

Contents

[edit] Definition

Various vegan food ingredients
Various vegan food ingredients

The word vegan, pronounced /ˈviːgən/,[11] or /ˈvɛdʒən/,[12] was originally derived from "vegetarian" in 1944 when Elsie Shrigley and Donald Watson, frustrated that the term "vegetarianism" had come to include the eating of dairy products, founded the UK Vegan Society.[13] They combined the first three and last two letters of vegetarian to form "vegan," which they saw as "the beginning and end of vegetarian."[13][14] The Vegan Society defines veganism in this way:

[T]he word "veganism" denotes a philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude — as far as is possible and practical — all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose; and by extension, promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of humans, animals and the environment. In dietary terms it denotes the practice of dispensing with all products derived wholly or partly from animals.[1]

Other vegan societies use similar definitions.[15][16][17]

[edit] Demographics

Data regarding the number of vegans is available in some countries.

[edit] United States

Former 2008 Democratic presidential candidate Dennis Kucinich and his wife Elizabeth. Kucinich is known for his veganism and support of animal welfare.
Former 2008 Democratic presidential candidate Dennis Kucinich and his wife Elizabeth. Kucinich is known for his veganism and support of animal welfare.[18]

A 2002 Time/CNN poll found that 4% of American adults consider themselves vegetarians, and 5% of self-described vegetarians consider themselves vegans, which implies that 0.2% of American adults are vegans.[4] A 2006 poll conducted by Harris Interactive in the US listed specific foods and asked respondents to indicate which items they never eat, rather than asking respondents to self-identify. The survey found that of the 1,000 adults polled, 1.4% never eat meat, poultry, fish, seafood, dairy products, or eggs and were therefore essentially vegan in their eating habits. The survey also found that about 1.4% of men and 1.3% of women have vegan diets.[6]

[edit] Europe

In 2002, the UK Food Standards Agency reported that 5% of respondents self-identified as vegetarian or vegan. Though 29% of that 5% said they avoided "all animal products", only 5% reported avoiding dairy products.[5] Based on these figures, approximately 0.25% of the UK population follow a vegan diet. In 2005, The Times estimated there were 250,000 vegans in Britain, which suggests around 0.4% of the UK population is vegan.[19] However, a 2007 survey for the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs into the UK population's attitudes and behaviour towards the environment found that 2.24% of the population identified themselves as vegan.[7] In the same study, vegetarians who did not also eat chicken or fish made up 2.7% of the population. The DEFRA study also indicated that slightly more men than women are vegan, that more vegans live in towns or cities than the country, and that people aged 16-29 were vegan more often than any other age group.

Various polls and research conducted during the 1990s put the percentage of Swedish residents being vegan at between 0.27% and 1.6% of the entire population.[20] A study of the eating patterns of 2,538 Swedish children of ages 4, 8 and 11 by the Swedish National Food Administration found that about 1% of the children were vegetarian, less than 1% were lacto-vegetarians, but found no children to be vegans.[21] The website VeganWelt estimates there to be between 250,000 and 460,500 vegans in Germany, or between 0.3% and 0.5% of the German population.[22] The Netherlands Association for Veganism estimates there to be approximately 16,000 vegans in the Netherlands, or around 0.1% of the Dutch population.[23]

[edit] Animal products

Main article: Animal product

The term "animal product" in a vegan context refers to any material derived from animals for human use.[2] Notable animal products include meat, poultry, seafood, eggs, dairy products, honey, fur, leather, wool, and silk.[3] Common animal by-products include gelatin, lanolin, rennet, whey, casein, beeswax, and shellac.[3]

Animal ingredients can be found in countless products and are used in the production of—though not always present in the final form of—many more;[24][25][26] many of these ingredients are esoteric,[27][28] also have non-animal sources,[29] and especially in non-food products may not even be identified.[24] Although some vegans attempt to avoid all these ingredients, Vegan Outreach argues that "it can be prohibitively expensive and time-consuming to shun every minor or hidden animal-derived ingredient," and therefore that doing what is "best for preventing suffering" is more important than identifying and excluding every animal ingredient.[30][31]

Although honey and silk are by definition animal products, some vegans consider their use and the use of other insect products to be acceptable.[32]

[edit] Ethical concerns

Sows at an intensive pig farm. Opposition to factory farming is one of the most common ethical reasons given for veganism.
Sows at an intensive pig farm. Opposition to factory farming is one of the most common ethical reasons given for veganism.[33]
See also: Animal rights, Ethics of eating meat, and Factory farming

Vegan organizations maintain that animals have certain rights, and as such it is not ethical for humans to use animals in ways that infringe those rights.[34][35][36] Practices seen as cruel to animals include factory farming,[33][37][38] animal testing,[3][39] and displaying animals for entertainment in circuses,[40] rodeos,[41] and zoos.[42]

Philosopher Tom Regan argues that animals are entities which possess "inherent value"[43] and therefore have "basic moral rights," and that the principal moral right they possess is "the right to respectful treatment."[44] Regan additionally argues that animals have a "basic moral right not to be harmed," which can be overridden only when the individual's right to be harmed is "morally outweighed" by "other valid moral principles."[45][46] From this "rights view," Regan argues that "animal agriculture, as we know it, is unjust" even when animals are raised "humanely."[47][48] Regan argues against various justifications for eating meat including that "animal flesh is tasty," that it is "habit" for "individuals and as a culture", that it is "convenient," that "meat is nutritious," that there is an obligation the economic interests of farmers or to the economic interests of a country, or that "farm animals are legal property," and finds that all fail to treat animals with the respect due to them by their basic rights.[49] Regan therefore argues that "those who support current animal agriculture by purchasing meat have a moral obligation to stop doing so" and that "the individual has a duty to lead a vegetarian way of life."[50]

Legal theorist Gary L. Francione argues that animals are sentient, and that this is sufficient to grant them moral consideration.[51] Francione argues that "all sentient beings should have at least one right—the right not to be treated as property" and that there is "no moral justification for using nonhumans for our purposes."[51] Francione further argues that adopting veganism should be regarded as the "baseline" action taken by people concerned with animal rights.[51]

A cow restrained for slaughter.
A cow restrained for slaughter.

Utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer argues that there is "no moral justification" for refusing to take sentient animal suffering into consideration in ethical decisions.[52] Singer argues that an animal's interests warrant equal consideration with the interests of humans, and that not doing so is "speciesist."[52] Based upon his evaluation of these interests, Singer argues that "our use of animals for food becomes questionable—especially when animal flesh is a luxury rather than a necessity."[53] Singer does not contend that killing animals is always wrong, but that from a practical standpoint it is "better to reject altogether the killing of animals for food, unless one must do so to survive."[54] Singer therefore advocates both veganism and improved conditions for farm animals as practical means to reduce animal suffering.[55][56][57]

Steven Davis, a professor of animal science at Oregon State University, argues that following Tom Regan's "least harm principle" may not necessarily require the adoption of a vegan diet.[58] Davis suggests that there are non-vegetarian diets which "may kill fewer animals" than are killed in the intensive crop production necessary to support vegetarian diets. In particular, Davis argues that adopting a diet based upon "forage-ruminant-based agriculture" in the United States would kill an estimated 380-450 million fewer animals annually than a vegan diet and therefore that "humans may be morally obligated to consume a diet from plant-based plus pasture-forage-ruminant sysems."[59]

Gaverick Matheny, a Ph.D. candidate in agricultural economics at the University of Maryland, counters that Davis' reasoning contains several major flaws, including miscalculating the number of animal deaths based on land area rather than per consumer, and incorrectly equating "the harm done to animals […] to the number of animals killed." Matheny notes that Davis' proposal is "a world apart" from agriculture "prevalent in the United States" which would "greatly improve the lives of farmed animals," but argues that per-consumer, a vegan diet would kill fewer wild animals than a diet adhering to Davis' model, and that vegetarianism "involves better treatment of animals, and likely allows a greater number of animals with lives worth living to exist."[60]

William Jarvis, writing for The National Council Against Health Fraud, characterizes veganism as "a hygienic religion that meets deep emotional needs of its followers," who revel "in self-denial and wars against pleasure," and who "cannot be trusted to be objective, reliable sources of information on anything that bears upon its fundamental paradigm."[61] Jarvis attacks "ideologic vegetarians," whom he claims believe that "all life is sacred" and that "all forms of life have equal value," saying that these beliefs "can lead to absurdities such as allowing mosquitoes to spread malaria, or vipers to run loose on one's premises."[62]

[edit] Health

Main article: Vegan nutrition

The Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine recommends what they call the "Four New Food Groups."[63] They suggest that vegans and vegetarians eat at least three servings of vegetables a day, including dark green, leafy vegetables such as broccoli, and dark yellow and orange such as carrots; five servings of whole grains (bread, rice, pasta); three of fruit; and two of legumes (beans, peas, lentils).[63]

[edit] Benefits

Vegan version of the nutritional food pyramid which normally includes meat and animal products. Click to enlarge.
Vegan version of the nutritional food pyramid which normally includes meat and animal products. Click to enlarge.

Certain widespread diets (such as the standard American diet, which is high in animal-based foods and low in plant-based foods) are detrimental to health, and a vegan diet thus represents an improvement,[64][65] in part because vegan diets are often high enough in fruit and vegetables to meet or exceed the recommended fruit and vegetable intakes.

Benefits of vegetarian diets might be valid also for strict vegan diets: according to the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada, diets that avoid meat tend to have lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants, such as vitamins C and E, and phytochemicals.[10] People who avoid meat are reported to have lower body mass index than those following the average Canadian diet; from this follows lower death rates from ischemic heart disease; lower blood cholesterol levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and prostate and colon cancer.[10]

A 1999 meta-study of five studies comparing vegetarian and non-vegetarian mortality rates in western countries found equivalent mortality rates for vegans and those who eat meat regularly. The study also found equivalent and lower mortality rates for vegetarians and those who eat meat infrequently. [66] A 2003 study of British vegetarians, including vegans, found similar mortality rates between vegetarians and other groups.[67]

A 2006 study found that in people with type 2 diabetes a low-fat vegan diet reduced weight, BMI, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol and did so to a greater extent than the diet prescribed by the American Diabetes Association.[68]

[edit] Precautions

[edit] Specific nutrients

The American Dietetic Association has said that "appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provide health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases."[10] However, poorly planned vegan diets can be deficient in nutrients such as vitamin B12,[69] vitamin D,[70] calcium,[71][70] iodine[72] and omega-3 fatty acids.[73] These deficiencies have potentially serious consequences, including anemia,[74] rickets[75] and cretinism[76] in children, and osteomalacia[75] and hypothyroidism[76] in adults.

[edit] Vitamin B12

Deficiencies in Vitamin B12, a bacterial product that cannot be reliably found in plant foods,[77][78][74] can have serious health consequences, including anemia and neurodegenerative disease.[79] Although clinical B12 deficiency is rare in vegans,[74] if a person has not eaten more than the daily needed amount of B12 over a long period before becoming a vegan then they may not have built up any significant store of the vitamin.[80] In a 2002 laboratory study, more of the strict vegan participants' B12 and iron levels were compromised than those of lacto- or lacto-ovo-vegetarian participants.[81]

The Vegan Society and Vegan Outreach, and others, recommend that vegans either consistently eat foods fortified with B12 or take a B12 supplement.[82][83][84] Tempeh, seaweed, spirulina, organic produce, soil on unwashed vegetables, and intestinal bacteria have not been shown to be reliable sources of B12 for the dietary needs of vegans.[85][86][74]

[edit] Calcium & Vitamin D

It is recommended that vegans eat three servings per day of a high calcium food, such as fortified soy milk, and take a calcium supplement as necessary.[70][10] The EPIC-Oxford study showed that vegans have an increased risk of bone fractures over both meat eaters and vegetarians, likely due to lower dietary calcium intake, but that vegans consuming more than the UK's estimated average requirements for calcium of 525 mg/day had risk of bone fractures similar to other groups.[71][87]

The authors of The China Study argue that osteoporosis is linked to the consumption of animal protein because animal protein, unlike plant protein, increases the acidity of blood and tissues which is then neutralized by calcium pulled from the bones.[88] The authors add that "in our rural China Study, where the animal to plant ratio [for protein] was about 10%, the fracture rate is only one-fifth that of the U.S."[89]

For light skinned people, adequate amounts of vitamin D may also be obtained by spending 15 to 30 minutes in the sunlight every few days. Dark skinned people need significantly more sunlight to obtain the same amount of vitamin D, and sunlight exposure may be difficult for vegans in areas with low levels of sunlight during winter; in these cases supplementation is recommended.[75][90][77] Certain mushrooms and some Vitamin D2-fortified foods (where the Vitamin D2 is derived from yeast) are the only food sources of Vitamin D suitable for vegans.[91]

[edit] Iodine

Iodine supplementation may be necessary for vegans in countries where salt is not typically iodized, where it is iodized at low levels, or where, as in Britain or Ireland, animal products are used for iodine delivery.[82][72] Iodine can be obtained from most vegan multivitamins or from regular consumption of kelp.[82][72]

[edit] Pregnancies and children

According to the US National Institute of Health, "with appropriate food choices, vegan diets can be adequate for children at all ages."[92] The American Dietetic Association also considers well-planned vegan diets "appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including pregnancy and lactation,"[10] but recommends that vegan mothers supplement for iron, vitamin D, and vitamin B12.[93][94] Vitamin B12 deficiency in lactating vegetarian mothers has been linked to deficiencies and neurological disorders in their children.[95][96] Some research suggests that the essential omega-3 fatty acid α-linolenic acid and its derivatives should also be supplemented in pregnant and lactating vegan mothers, since they are very low in most vegan diets, and the metabolically related docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is essential to the developing visual system.[97] A maternal vegan diet has also been associated with low birth weight,[98] and a five times lower likelihood of having twins than those who eat animal products.[99]

Several cases of severe infant malnutrition and some fatalities have been associated with a poorly planned vegan diet,[100][101][102] and provoked criticism of vegan diets for children.[103][104] Parents involved in these cases were convicted on charges ranging from assault to felony murder. Addressing criticism of veganism, Dr. Amy Lanou, an expert witness for the prosecution in one of the cases, asserted that the child "was not killed by a vegan diet" but that "the real problem was that he was not given enough food of any sort."[105]

[edit] Eating disorders

The American Dietetic Association indicates that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders but that the evidence suggests that the adoption of a vegetarian diet does not lead to eating disorders, rather that "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder."[10] Other studies and statements by dietitians and counselors support this conclusion.[106][107][108].

[edit] Resources and the environment

Cattle - especially when kept on enormous feedlots such as this one - have been shown as a contributing factor in the rise in greenhouse gas emissions.
Cattle - especially when kept on enormous feedlots such as this one - have been shown as a contributing factor in the rise in greenhouse gas emissions.
Main article: Environmental vegetarianism

People who adopt veganism for environmental reasons do so on the basis that veganism consumes far fewer resources and causes less environmental damage than an animal-based diet.[109][110][111] Animal agriculture is linked to climate change, water pollution, land degradation, and a decline in biodiversity.[112][111][113] Additionally, an animal-based diet uses more land,[113][114] water,[115] and energy than a vegan diet.[113][116][117]

The growing demand for meat in developing countries may be aggravating the greenhouse gas spiral.
The growing demand for meat in developing countries may be aggravating the greenhouse gas spiral.

The United Nations released a report in November 2006 linking animal agriculture to environmental damage. The report, Livestock's Long Shadow [118] concludes that the livestock sector (primarily cows, chickens, and pigs) emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to our most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global. It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases - responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents. In comparison, the proportion of total CO2 emissions by passenger vehicles is 12% of the total CO2.[119] It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO2) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO2). Those numbers are confirmed in a 2007 article in the British medical journal The Lancet, which concludes that reducing consumption of animal products should be a top priority, especially in developed countries where such a measure would also entail substantial health benefits.[120]

A 2006 study by Gidon Eshel and Pamela Martin, assistant professors of geophysics at the University of Chicago, found that a person switching from the average American diet to a vegan diet would reduce CO2 emissions by 1,485 kg per year.[121]

The International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis argues that while most meat production in industrialized countries uses inefficient grain feeding methods through intensive farming, meat production is not invariably a poor use of land, especially in countries like China and Brazil. Since a proportion of all grain crops produced are not suitable for human consumption, they can be fed to animals to turn into meat, thus improving efficiency.[122][123] Nevertheless this does not apply to the majority of grain crops worldwide, but only to small parts of them in developing countries.[citation needed] Further, greenhouse gas emissions are not limited to animal husbandry; but also to several plant based sources such as rice cultivation.[124][125]

A 2007 study which simulated various diets' land use for the geography of New York State concluded that although vegetarian diets used the smallest amount of land per capita, a diet which included some meat and dairy—though significantly less than consumed by the average American—could support more people on the same available land, since animal food crops can be grown on lower quality land than crops for human consumption.[126][127]

It has been noted that the production of some vegan food substitutes like soy, used to produce soymilk amongst other items, is partly to blame for the deforestation of rainforests.[128][129] However, massive amounts of soy are used as animal feed rather than for direct human consumption. And while it takes several pounds of soy to produce a single pound of meat, a single pound of soy can be used to produce several pounds of soy-based foods for humans.

[edit] Similar diets and lifestyles

Sample of vegan Buddhist cuisine from a Zen temple in Japan.
Sample of vegan Buddhist cuisine from a Zen temple in Japan.
See also: Vegetarianism and religion

Diets such as raw veganism and fruitarianism are related to veganism, but have significant differences from standard veganism. There are also numerous religious groups that regularly or occasionally practice a similar diet, including adherents to some Buddhist traditions,[130] Eastern Orthodox Christians,[131] Jains,[132] Hindus,[133] Sikhism, Rastafarians,[134] and Seventh-day Adventists.[135]

[edit] Cuisine

A vegan raspberry pear tart.
A vegan raspberry pear tart.
See also: Vegetarian cuisine
Also see the Wikibooks Cookbook articles on vegan cuisine and vegan substitutions and its listing of vegan recipes.

The cuisines of most nations contain dishes suitable for a vegan diet, including ingredients such as tofu, tempeh and the wheat product seitan in Asian diets.[136][137][138][139] Many recipes that traditionally contain animal products can be adapted by substituting plant-based ingredients. For example, nut, grain or soy milks can be used to replace cow's milk[139][140] and eggs can be replaced by applesauce or commercial starch-based substitute products, depending upon the recipe.[139][140][141] Additionally, artificial "meat" products ("analogs" or "mock meats") made from non-animal derived ingredients such as soy, gluten, or mycoprotein, including imitation sausages, ground beef, burgers, and chicken nuggets are widely available.[139][142]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b Memorandum of Association of the Vegan Society. About Us 1. Vegan Society (1979-11-20). Retrieved on 2007-02-22.
  2. ^ a b c Stepaniak, Joanne (2000). Being Vegan. McGraw-Hill Contemporary, 2,6,17,148-150. ISBN 978-0737303230. 
  3. ^ a b c d Criteria for Vegan food. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-02-17.
  4. ^ a b c Time/CNN Poll: Do you consider yourself a vegetarian?. Time Magazine (2002-07-07). Retrieved on 2006-10-30.
  5. ^ a b c Types and quantities of food consumed: Vegetarian/vegan (PDF). National Diet & Nutrition Survey: Adults aged 19 to 64, Volume 1 2002 11, 23. Food Standards Agency. Retrieved on 2006-10-30.
  6. ^ a b How Many Adults Are Vegetarian?. Vegetarian Journal. Vegetarian Resource Group. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  7. ^ a b BMRB Social Research (2007-11-02). Data tables (PDF). Report, questionnaire and data tables following Survey of Public Attitudes and Behaviours toward the Environment: 2007 500-502. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. Retrieved on 2007-11-22.
  8. ^ Key TJ, Thorogood M, Appleby PN, Burr ML (1996). "Dietary habits and mortality in 11,000 vegetarians and health conscious people: results of a 17 year follow up". BMJ 313 (7060): 775–9. PMID 8842068. 
  9. ^ "Vegetarian Diets" (2003). Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103 (6): 748–765. online copy available
  10. ^ a b c d e f g "Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets" (June 2003). Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103 (6): 748–765. doi:10.1053/jada.2003.50142. 
  11. ^ vegan. Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. Retrieved on 2007-05-31.
  12. ^ (2000) Oxford English Dictionary on CD-ROM, v2, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 
  13. ^ a b Vegan Society: History. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-02-17.
  14. ^ Vegetarians in Paradise interview with Donald Watson. Vegetarians in Paradise Web Magazine. Vegetarians in Paradise (2004-08-11). Retrieved on 2006-10-31.
  15. ^ What is Vegan?. American Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2006-09-15.
  16. ^ Introduction to Veganism. The Vegan Society of New Zealand. Retrieved on 2006-10-30.
  17. ^ About Vegana. The Danish Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2006-10-30.
  18. ^ About Dennis Kucinich (PDF). Dennis for President 2. Kucinich for President 2008. Retrieved on 2008-04-23. “Congressman Kucinich is one of the few vegans in Congress, a dietary decision he credits not only with improving his health, but in deepening his belief in the sacredness of all species.”
  19. ^ Donald Watson. Times Online. Times Newspapers Ltd. (2005-11-16). Retrieved on 2006-09-15.
  20. ^ Pettersson, Björn (June 2005). Vegansk näringslära på vetenskaplig grund, 2nd edition (in Swedish), Orsa: HÄLSAböcker/Energica Förlag, 17-19. ISBN 9185506796. 
  21. ^ Heléne Enghardt Barbieri; Wulf Becker (2004-12-15). Svenska barns matvanor 2003 (PDF) (Swedish) 5. Livsmedelsverket. Retrieved on 2007-11-23.
  22. ^ VeganWelt: vegan FAQ. veganwelt.de. Retrieved on 2007-10-03. “In Deutschland gibt es zwischen 250 000 und 460 500 Veganer (5 Millionen Vegetarier)”
  23. ^ Wat is veganisme?. veganisme.org. Nederlandse Vereniging voor Veganisme. Retrieved on 2007-10-03. “Er zijn nu ongeveer 2,4 miljoen parttime vegetariërs en vleesverlaters, 300.000 vegetariërs en 16.000 veganisten in Nederland.”
  24. ^ a b Vegan FAQs. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2007-03-11. “Is refined sugar vegan? It depends on how you define 'vegan.' Refined sugars do not contain any animal products, and so by an ingredients-based definition of vegan, refined sugar is vegan. ... However, if one accepts a process-based definition of vegan, then many other familiar products would also not be considered vegan. For instance, steel and vulcanized rubber are produced using animal fats and, in many areas, groundwater and surface water is filtered through bone charcoal filters.”
  25. ^ IVU FAQ: Drinks. International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union (2006-08-03). Retrieved on 2007-03-11.
  26. ^ Information Sheet: Alcohol. Vegetarian Society. Retrieved on 2007-03-11. “The use of animal derived products in the production of alcoholic beverages is fairly widespread not because no alternatives exist, but because they always have been used and there is little demand from the consumer for an alternative. ... The main appearance of animal derived products is in the fining or clearing process, though others may be used as colorants or anti-foaming agents.”
  27. ^ IVU FAQ: Ingredients. International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union. Retrieved on 2006-10-30.
  28. ^ IVU FAQ: Animal Derived Ingredient List. International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union (2006-08-03). Retrieved on 2007-03-10.
  29. ^ IVU FAQ: Maybe Animal Derived. International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union (2006-08-03). Retrieved on 2007-03-10.
  30. ^ On Living With Compassion. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2007-03-10. “Our desire to oppose and help end cruelty to animals can help guide our choices, as well as provide a simple, easy-to-understand explanation of our actions. The question isn't, "Is this vegan?" but, "What is best for preventing suffering?"”
  31. ^ On Living With Compassion (Old version). Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2007-03-10. “We believe that framing veganism as the avoidance of a specific list of “bad” ingredients is not the best way to achieve results. When looked at closely, any ingredients-based definition of vegan collapses into inconsistencies. This is why we stress that the essence of being vegan is working to end cruelty to animals.”
  32. ^ Is honey vegan?. Vegan FAQ's. Vegan Action. Retrieved on 2007-10-03. “Many vegans, however, are not opposed to using insect products, because they do not believe insects are conscious of pain. Moreover, even if insects were conscious of pain, it's not clear that the production of honey involves any more pain for insects than the production of most vegetables, since the harvesting and transportation of all vegetables involves many 'collateral' insect deaths.”
  33. ^ a b Factory Farms. Why Vegan. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2006-09-15.
  34. ^ About Veganism: For the Animals. Vegan Action. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “Veganism emerges as the lifestyle most consistent with the philosophy that animals are not ours to use.”
  35. ^ PETA's History: Compassion in Action. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “PETA operates under the simple principle that animals are not ours to eat, wear, experiment on, or use for entertainment.”
  36. ^ About Mercy for Animals. Mercy for Animals. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “Mercy For Animals is a 501(c)(3) non-profit animal advocacy organization that believes non-human animals are irreplaceable individuals with morally significant interests and hence rights, including the right to live free of unnecessary suffering.”
  37. ^ Cruelty to Animals: Mechanized Madness. GoVeg.com. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved on 2006-09-15.
  38. ^ Exploitation. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “The vast majority of these animals will have spent their brief lives in the cramped, distressing conditions of the factory farm. Their close confinement and the overworking of their bodies will have led to increased susceptibility to injury and disease. They will have been reared on an unnatural diet designed to increase productivity and many will have undergone various painful and traumatic procedures.”
  39. ^ Testing. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “Every year, millions of animals are subjected to the most horrifically painful experiments just so people can have a new brand of shampoo or a differently scented perfume.”
  40. ^ Circuses: Three Rings of Abuse. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “Colorful pageantry disguises the fact that animals used in circuses are captives who are forced, under threat of punishment, to perform confusing, uncomfortable, repetitious, and often-painful acts.”
  41. ^ Rodeo: Cruelty for a Buck. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “In reality, rodeos are nothing more than manipulative displays of human domination over animals, thinly disguised as entertainment.”
  42. ^ Animal Rights Uncompromised: Zoos. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “PETA opposes zoos because zoo cages and cramped enclosures deprive animals of their most basic needs. The zoo community regards the animals it keeps as commodities, and animals are regularly bought, sold, borrowed, and traded without any regard for established relationships.”
  43. ^ Regan, Tom (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 244-245. ISBN 0-520-05460-1. “…moral patients (e.g., animals in the wild)…For these reasons, the subject-of-a-life criterion can be defended as citing a relevant similarity between moral agents and patients, one that makes the attribution of equal inherent value to them both intelligible and nonarbitrary.” 
  44. ^ Regan, Tom (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 327. ISBN 0-520-05460-1. “The principal conclusion reached in the present chapter is that all moral agents and patients have certain basic moral rights. … The principal basic moral right possessed by all moral agents and patients is the right to respectful treatment.” 
  45. ^ Regan, Tom (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 328. ISBN 0-520-05460-1. “It was also argued that all moral agents and patients have a prima facie basic moral right not to be harmed.” 
  46. ^ Regan, Tom (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 287. ISBN 0-520-05460-1. “To say this right is a prima facie right is to say that (1) consideration of this right is always a morally relevant consideration, and (2) anyone who would harm another, or allow others to do so, must be able to justify doing so by (a) appealing to other valid moral principles and by (b) showing that these principles morally outweigh the right not to be harmed in a given case.” 
  47. ^ Regan, Tom (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 394. ISBN 0-520-05460-1. “This chapter traced some of the implications of the rights view. On this view, animal agriculture, as we know it, is unjust (9.1), and it is unjust because it fails to treat farm animals with the respect they are due” 
  48. ^ Regan, Tom (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 394. ISBN 0-520-05460-1. “Animal agriculture, as we know it, is wrong, not only when farm animals are raised in close confinement in factory farms, but also when they are raised "humanely," since even in this case their lives are routinely brought to an untimely end because of human interests” 
  49. ^ Regan, Tom (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 333-334. ISBN 0-520-05460-1. “The argument just given is sound only if the case can be made that raising animals to eat and eating them satisfies all the requirements of the liberty principle. Once we examine the matter more closely, we shall see that it fails to do so.” 
  50. ^ Regan, Tom (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 394. ISBN 0-520-05460-1. “Those who support current animal agriculture by purchasing meat have a moral obligation to stop doing so. … the rights view holds that the individual has a duty to lead a vegetarian way of life” 
  51. ^ a b c Francione, Gary (2006-12-27). Mission Statement. Animal Rights: The Abolitionist Approach. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “We have no moral justification for using nonhumans for our purposes. … A shorthand way of describing the view presented here is to say that all sentient beings should have at least one right—the right not to be treated as property. … This site also seeks to make clear that the moral baseline of an animal rights movement is veganism.”
  52. ^ a b Singer, Peter [1993] (1999). "Equality for Animals?", Practical Ethics, Second Edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 57–58. ISBN 0-521-43971-X. “If a being suffers, there can be no moral justification for refusing to take that suffering into consideration. … This is why the limit of sentience…is the only defensible boundary of concern for the interests of others. … Similarly those I would call 'speciesists' give greater weight to their own species when there is a clash between their interests and the interests of those of other species.” 
  53. ^ Singer, Peter [1993] (1999). "Equality for Animals?", Practical Ethics, Second Edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 62. ISBN 0-521-43971-X. “The use of animals for food is probably the oldest and most widespread form of animal use. There is also a sense in which it is the most basic form of animal use, the foundation stone on which rests the belief that animals exist for our pleasure and convenience. If animals count in their own right, our use of animals for food becomes questionable—especially when animal flesh is a luxury rather than a necessity.” 
  54. ^ Singer, Peter [1993] (1999). "Taking Life: Animals", Practical Ethics, Second Edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 134. ISBN 0-521-43971-X. “In any case, at the level of practical moral principles, it would be better to reject altogether the killing of animals for food, unless one must do so to survive.” 
  55. ^ Clyne, Catherine (10 2006). Singer Says. Satya. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “If you read the book, it does make clear that going vegan is a good solution to a lot of the ethical problems.”
  56. ^ Gilson, Dave (2006-05-03). Chew the Right Thing. Mother Jones. The Foundation for National Progress. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “In 1975 he published Animal Liberation, a pioneering defense of the rights of animals that concluded that veganism is the most ethically justifiable diet.”
  57. ^ Broudy, Oliver (2006-05-08). The practical ethicist. Salon.com. Salon Media Group, Inc.. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “If you can be vegetarian or vegan that's ideal. If you can buy organic and vegan that's better still, and organic and fair trade and vegan, better still, but if that gets too difficult or too complicated, just ask yourself, Does this product come from intensive animal agriculture?”
  58. ^ Davis, S.L. (2001). The least harm principle suggests that humans should eat beef, lamb, dairy, not a vegan diet.. Proceedings of the Third Congress of the European Society for Agricultural and Food Ethics 449-450. EurSafe 2001. Food Safety, Food Quality and Food Ethics.. Retrieved on 2008-04-22. “In conclusion, applying the Least Harm Principle as proposed by Regan would actually argue that we are morally obligated to move to a ruminant-based diet rather than a vegan diet.”
  59. ^ Davis S.L. (2003). "The least harm principle may require that humans consume a diet containing large herbivores, not a vegan diet" (PDF). Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 16 (4): 387–394. doi:10.1023/A:1025638030686. “An examination of this question shows that the LHP may actually be better served using food production systems that include both plant-based agriculture and forage-ruminant-based agriculture as compared to a strict plant-based (vegan) system. Perhaps we are morally obligated to consume a diet containing both plants and ruminant (particularly cattle) animal products. … According to this model then, fewer animals (1.35 billion) would die than in the vegan model (1.8 billion). … the total number of animals that would need to be killed under this alternative method would still only be 1.424 billion, still clearly less than the vegan model. … Several alternative food production models exist which may kill fewer animals than the vegan model.” 
  60. ^ Gaverick Matheny (2003). "Least harm: a defense of vegetarianism from Steven Davis’s omnivorous proposal". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 16 (5): 505–511. doi:10.1023/A:1026354906892. “While eating animals who are grazed rather than intensively confined would vastly improve the welfare of farmed animals given their current mistreatment, Davis does not succeed in showing this is preferable to vegetarianism. First, Davis makes a mathematical error in using total rather than per capita estimates of animals killed; second, he focuses on the number of animals killed in ruminant and crop production systems and ignores important considerations about the welfare of animals under both systems; and third, he does not consider the number of animals who are prevented from existing under the two systems. After correcting for these errors, Davis’s argument makes a strong case for, rather than against, adopting a vegetarian diet.” 
  61. ^ Jarvis, William T. (1996). Physician's Committee For Responsible Medicine (PCRM). National Council Against Health Fraud. Retrieved on 2008-04-22. “NCAHF considers vegetarianism, particularly veganism, a hygienic religion that meets deep emotional needs of its followers. Adherents cannot be trusted to be objective, reliable sources of information on anything that bears upon its fundamental paradigm.”
  62. ^ Jarvis, William T. (1997-04-01). "Why I Am Not a Vegetarian". ACSH Newsletter "Priorities" 9 (2). American Council on Science and Health. “The belief that all life is sacred can lead to absurdities such as allowing mosquitoes to spread malaria, or vipers to run loose on one's premises. Inherent in the idea that all life is sacred is the supposition that all forms of life have equal value.” 
  63. ^ a b "Vegetarian starter kit", Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, posted on vegsource.com.
  64. ^ Segelken, Roger (2001-06-28). China Study II: Switch to Western diet may bring Western-type diseases. Cornell Chronicle. Retrieved on 2006-09-15.
  65. ^ China-Cornell-Oxford Project On Nutrition, Environment and Health at Cornell University. Division of Nutritional Sciences. Cornell University. Retrieved on 2006-09-15.
  66. ^ Timothy, J; et al. (September 1999). "Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70 (3): 516S–524S. PMID 10479225. “Death rate ratio (Number of deaths)
    Regular meat eaters (n = 31766): 1.00 (3017)
    Vegans (n = 753): 1.00 (68)”     
  67. ^ Key, Timothy J; et. al. (September 2003). "Mortality in British vegetarians: review and preliminary results from EPIC-Oxford". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78 (3): 533S–538S. PMID 12936946. “In conclusion, both the vegetarians and the nonvegetarians in these 3 British cohort studies have a low mortality compared with the national average. Comparisons within the cohorts suggest that the vegetarians have a moderately lower mortality from IHD than the nonvegetarians but that there is little difference in mortality from other major causes of death.” 
  68. ^ Barnard, Neal; Joshua Cohen, David J.A. Jenkins, Gabrielle Turner-McGrievy, Lise Gloede, Brent Jaster, Kim Seidl, Amber A. Green, and Stanley Talpers (08 2006). "A Low-Fat Vegan Diet Improves Glycemic Control and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in a Randomized Clinical Trial in Individuals With Type 2 Diabetes". Diabetes Care 29 (8): 1777–1783. doi:10.2337/dc06-0606. “Both diets were associated with significant clinical improvements, as indicated by reductions in A1C, body weight, plasma lipid concentrations, and urinary albumin excretion. Among medication-stable participants, changes in A1C, weight, BMI, waist circumference, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol were significantly greater in the vegan group. The magnitude of A1C reduction in medication-stable vegan group participants, 1.23 percentage points, compares favorably with that observed in single-agent therapy with oral diabetes drugs.” 
  69. ^ Vegan Health: Vitamin B12. veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach (2006-07-26). Retrieved on 2007-02-23.
  70. ^ a b c Vegan Health: Bone Health. veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach (2007-01-09). Retrieved on 2007-02-23.
  71. ^ a b P Appleby; A Roddam, N Allen and T Key (02 2007). "Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford" (fee required). European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 61: 1400. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602659. PMID 17299475. 
  72. ^ a b c Vegan Health: Iodine. veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach (2006-12-26). Retrieved on 2007-02-23.
  73. ^ Vegan Health: Fat. veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach (2007-02-20). Retrieved on 2007-02-23.
  74. ^ a b c d What every vegan should know about vitamin B12. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-02-22. “Vitamin B12, whether in supplements, fortified foods, or animal products, comes from micro-organisms.”
  75. ^ a b c Vegans and Vitamin D. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-02-22.
  76. ^ a b Steven Walsh. Nutrition: Iodine. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-02-23.
  77. ^ a b Jack Norris, RD (2003-04-18). Staying a Healthy Vegan. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2007-02-22. “There are no reliable, unfortified plant sources of vitamin B12; therefore fortified foods and/or supplements are necessary for the optimal health of vegans.”
  78. ^ Vitamin B12 Information Sheet. Vegetarian Society. Retrieved on 2007-02-22. “any B12 present in plant foods is likely to be unavailable to humans and so these foods should not be relied upon as safe sources.”
  79. ^ Vitamin B12 (cobalamin). Merck Manual Home Edition. Retrieved on 2006-10-30.
  80. ^ Jack Norris, RD (2005-07-22). Vegan Health: Myth about How Often Someone Needs B12. veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2007-01-02.
  81. ^ Obeid R, Geisel J, Schorr H, Hubner U, Herrmann W. (2002). "The impact of vegetarianism on some haematological parameters". Eur J Haematol. 69 (5–6): 275–9. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0609.2002.02798.x. PMID 12460231. 
  82. ^ a b c Healthy choices on a vegan diet. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-02-14.
  83. ^ Reed Mangels, Ph.D., R.D.. Vitamin B12 in the Vegan Diet. Vegetarian Resource Group. Retrieved on 2007-02-22.
  84. ^ Don't Vegetarians Have Trouble Getting Enough Vitamin B12?. Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine. Retrieved on 2007-02-22.
  85. ^ Jack Norris, RD. Vegan Health: B12 in Tempeh, Seaweeds, Organic Produce, and Other Plant Foods. veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2007-02-22.
  86. ^ Jack Norris, RD. Vegan Health: Are Intestinal Bacteria a Reliable Source of B12?. veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2007-02-22.
  87. ^ Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford.. Retrieved on 2007-06-17.
  88. ^ Campbell, T. Colin (2006). The China Study: The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and the Startling Implications for Diet, Weight Loss and Long-term Health. Benbella Books, 205. ISBN 1-932100-38-5. 
  89. ^ Campbell, T. Colin (2006). The China Study: The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and the Startling Implications for Diet, Weight Loss and Long-term Health. Benbella Books, 208. ISBN 1-932100-38-5. 
  90. ^ Information Sheet: Vegan Nutrition. Vegetarian Society. Retrieved on 2007-02-22.
  91. ^ Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin D. United States National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements (2008-05-16). Retrieved on 2008-05-21.
  92. ^ Messina, V; Mangels, AR (June 2001). "Considerations in planning vegan diets: children.". Journal of the American Dietetic Association 101 (6): 661–9. doi:10.1016/S0002-8223(01)00167-5. PMID 11424545. 
  93. ^ Lucia Lynn Kaiser; Lindsay Allen (2002-05-03). Nutrition and lifestyle for a healthy pregnancy outcome. American Dietetic Association. Retrieved on 2007-02-14.
  94. ^ ADA’s Public Relations Team (2006-10-03). The Vegetarian Mom-to-Be. American Dietetic Association. Retrieved on 2007-02-14.
  95. ^ Kuhne T, Bubl R, Baumgartner R (1991). "Maternal vegan diet causing a serious infantile neurological disorder due to vitamin B12 deficiency". Eur J Pediatr 150 (3): 205–8. doi:10.1007/BF01963568. PMID 2044594. 
  96. ^ Weiss R, Fogelman Y, Bennett M (2004). "Severe vitamin B12 deficiency in an infant associated with a maternal deficiency and a strict vegetarian diet". J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 26 (4): 270–1. doi:10.1097/00043426-200404000-00013. PMID 15087959. 
  97. ^ Sanders TA (1999). "Essential fatty acid requirements of vegetarians in pregnancy, lactation, and infancy". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 70 (3 Suppl): 555S–559S. PMID 10479231. 
  98. ^ Sanders TA (1999). "The nutritional adequacy of plant-based diets". The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 58 (2): 265–9. PMID 10466165. 
  99. ^ Steinman, G. (05 2006). "Mechanisms of twinning: VII. Effect of diet and heredity on the human twinning rate." (PDF, fee required). Journal of Reproductive Medicine 51 (5): 405–10. PMID 16779988. 
  100. ^ Retsinas, Greg. "Couple Guilty Of Assault In Vegan Case", New York Times, Arthur Ochs Sulzberger, Jr., April 5, 2003. Retrieved on 2007-07-17. 
  101. ^ "Vegan Parents Get Prison In Infant's Death", KSBW 8, May 9, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-07-17. 
  102. ^ Susannah Nesmith; David Kidwell. "Parents jailed in baby's death", Miami Herald, Miami Herald Media Co., 2003-06-07. Retrieved on 2007-09-17. Archived from the original on 2003-12-17. "A Miami-Dade medical examiner's office autopsy concluded Woyah died of severe malnutrition, according to an arrest report." 
  103. ^ Planck, Nina. "Death by Veganism", New York Times, Arthur Ochs Sulzberger, Jr., May 21, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-07-17. 
  104. ^ Nipps, Emily. "Custody battle over quints questions vegan lifestyle", St. Petersburg Times, June 25, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-07-17. 
  105. ^ Amy Joy Lanou. "Just the facts: A vegan diet is safe, healthy for infants", Houston Chronicle, 2007-06-25. Retrieved on 2007-09-17. Archived from the original on 2007-06-30. 
  106. ^ Dedyna, Katherine. "Healthy lifestyle, or politically correct eating disorder?", Victoria Times Colonist, CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc., 2004-01-30. Retrieved on 2006-10-30. "Vesanto Melina, a B.C. registered dietitian and author of Becoming Vegetarian, stresses there is no cause and effect relationship between vegetarianism and eating disorders although people who have eating disorders may label themselves as vegetarians "so that they won't have to eat."" 
  107. ^ O'Connor MA, Touyz SW, Dunn SM, Beumont PJ (1987). "Vegetarianism in anorexia nervosa? A review of 116 consecutive cases". Med J Aust 147 (11–12): 540–2. PMID 3696039. “In only four (6.3%) of these did meat avoidance predate the onset of their anorexia nervosa.” 
  108. ^ Davis, Brenda; Vesanto Melina (2002). Becoming Vegan: The Complete Guide to Adopting a Healthy Plant-Based Diet. Healthy Living Publications, 224. ISBN 1-57067-103-6. 
  109. ^ Brown LR (1981). "World food resources and population: the narrowing margin". Population bulletin 36 (3): 1–44. PMID 12263473. 
  110. ^ About Veganism: For the Environment. Vegan Action. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “Animal agriculture takes a devastating toll on the earth. It is an inefficient way of producing food, since feed for farm animals requires land, water, fertilizer, and other resources that could otherwise have been used directly for producing human food.”
  111. ^ a b Environmental Destruction. Why Vegan?. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2007-05-29.
  112. ^ Mosier AR, Duxbury JM, Freney JR, Heinemeyer O, Minami K and Johnson DE, (1998). "Mitigating Agricultural Emissions of Methane". Climatic Change 40 (1): 39–80. doi:10.1023/A:1005338731269. 
  113. ^ a b c Factory Farming: Mechanized Madness. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “Factory farms are harmful to the environment as well. Each day, factory farms produce billions of pounds of manure, which ends up in lakes, rivers, and drinking water. ... Of all the agricultural land in the U.S., 80 percent is used to raise animals for food and grow the grain to feed them—that’s almost half the total land mass of the lower 48 states. ... it takes more than 1,250 gallons of water to produce a pound of cow flesh, whereas it takes about 235 gallons of water to grow 1 pound of wheat.”
  114. ^ Environment: Land. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “In all, the raising of livestock takes up more than two-thirds of agricultural land, and one third of the total land area.”
  115. ^ Environment: Water. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “If we put all of these figures together, we find that whilst wheat provides us with an average 27.5 kcal for each litre of water used, beef provides only 0.76 kcal per litre. This means that - based on the data presented to show that other figures were "overstated" - beef still requires 36 times as much water per calorie as wheat.”
  116. ^ Environment: Energy. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “A plant-based vegan diet uses substantially less energy than a diet based on animal products. This energy is virtually all derived from fossil fuels, making meat and dairy consumption a contributing factor in air pollution, acidification, oil spills, habitat destruction and global warming.”
  117. ^ Resources. Why Vegan?. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2007-05-29.
  118. ^ Livestock’s Long Shadow–Environmental Issues and Options. Retrieved on 2007-01-04.
  119. ^ Regulating car emissions: How tough will Canada be?
  120. ^ Food, Livestock Production, Energy, Climate Change, and Health.. Elsevier (2007-09-13). Retrieved on 2008-05-18.
  121. ^ Eshel, G., and P.A. Martin (2006). "Diet, Energy and Global Warming" (PDF). Earth Interactions 10 (9): 1–17. doi:10.1175/EI167.1. “We conclude that a person consuming a mixed diet with the mean American caloric content and composition causes the emissions of 1,485 kg CO2-equivalent above the emissions associated with consuming the same number of calories, but from plant sources. Far from trivial, nationally this difference amounts to over 6% of the total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions.” 
  122. ^ NSW Department of Primary Industries - Feeding frosted cereal grain to ruminants
  123. ^ How harmful is animal protein consumption for the environment?
  124. ^ Methane Emission from Rice Fields - Wetland rice fields may make a major contribution to global warming by Heinz-Ulrich Neue
  125. ^ Plants revealed as methane source By Tim Hirsch 11 January 2006 -BBC
  126. ^ Peters, Christian J.; Jennifer L. Wilkinsa and Gary W. Ficka (2007). "Testing a complete-diet model for estimating the land resource requirements of food consumption and agricultural carrying capacity: The New York State example". Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 22 (02): 145–153. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/S1742170507001767. 
  127. ^ Lang, Susan. "Diet for small planet may be most efficient if it includes dairy and a little meat, Cornell researchers report", Cornell Chronicle Online, Cornell University, 2007-10-04. Retrieved on 2008-02-07. 
  128. ^ Deforestation paves way in Brazil By Jan Rocha BBC
  129. ^ World Rainforest Movement
  130. ^ Karma Lekshe Tsomo (2006), Into the Jaws of Yama, Lord of Death: Buddhism, Bioethics, and Death, SUNY Press, ISBN 0791468313, <http://books.google.co.uk/books?vid=ISBN0791468313&id=TvJjnIYXGzYC&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131&ots=15GajcCxBq&dq=vegan+buddhism&ie=ISO-8859-1&output=html&sig=cp7z245xN5l6HxPrXzDsKi5fDxE> 
  131. ^ The Fasting Rule of the Orthodox Church. God is Wonderful in His Saints: Orthodox Resources. Retrieved on 2007-11-15. “Unless a fast-free period has been declared, Orthodox Christians are to keep a strict fast every Wednesday and Friday. The following foods are avoided: Meat, including poultry, and any meat products such as lard and meat broth. Fish (meaning fish with backbones; shellfish are permitted). Eggs and dairy products (milk, butter, cheese, etc.)”
  132. ^ The role of religion in protecting the Earth (Jainism and the environment: precursors of modern ecology). Forum 2004: Parliament of the World's Religions. Universal Forum of Cultures (2004). Retrieved on 2007-02-22. “Naresh Jain, Co-Chair of the Interfaith Committee of Jainism Associations in North America, said that the difference lies in Jainists’ strict approach to the vegetarian (or vegan) diet. “Jainism is the only religion that materialises the ideal of non-violence through the vegan diet” he said.”
  133. ^ Jyoti Mehta. Veganism and Hinduism. The Young Indian Vegetarians. Retrieved on 2007-02-22.
  134. ^ Campbell, M; W S Lofters, W N Gibbs (12 1982). "Rastafarianism and the vegans syndrome". British Medical Journal 285: 1617–1618. 1617–1618. 
  135. ^ Fraser, Gary (08 1999). "Associations between diet and cancer, ischemic heart disease, and all-cause mortality in non-Hispanic white California Seventh-day Adventists". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70 (3). PMID 10479227. 532S-538S. 
  136. ^ Shurtleff, William. History of Tofu. LA Tofu Festival. Retrieved on 2007-02-18.
  137. ^ Jacobs, Leonard; Aveline Kushi, and Barbara Jacobs (1994). Cooking with Seitan: The Complete Vegetarian "Wheat-meat" Cookbook. Avery, 5–6. ISBN 978-0895295996. 
  138. ^ History of Tempeh. tempeh.info. Retrieved on 2007-02-18.
  139. ^ a b c d Vegan proteins. BBC Food. BBC. Retrieved on 2007-02-23.
  140. ^ a b Baking without eggs, milk and buttah. Post Punk Kitchen. Retrieved on 2007-02-23.
  141. ^ Vegan Substitution for Egg Whites. Ochef.com. Food News Service. Retrieved on 2007-02-23. “Q. What is a vegan substitute for egg whites? A. And the mystery ingredient is… flax seed.”
  142. ^ Bryanna Clark Grogan. Vegan Meat Analogs, Dairy Substitutes, and Egg Alternatives. Bryanna's Vegan Feast. Retrieved on 2007-02-23.

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