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[edit] Iraiyanar Akapporul
Iraiyanar Akapporul, or Kalaviyal enra Iraiyanar Akapporul, literally "Iraiyanar's treatise on the love-theme, called 'The study of stolen love'" (Tamil: களவியல் என்ற இறையனார் அகப்பொருள்) is an early mediaeval work on Tamil poetics, specifically, on the literary conventions associated with the akam tradition of Tamil love poetry. The date of the work is uncertain, but it is generally taken to have been composed between the fifth and eighth centuries.
The Akapporul consists of a set of sixty nurpas - terse epigrams written in verse which codify rules - attributed to Iraiyanar. The received text of the accompanied by a long prose treatise on akam poetics attributed to Nakkiranar, which is structured as a commentary on the nurpas, but significantly expands on them and introduces several new ideas. The work as a whole occupies an important place in the history of Tamil literature for several reasons. The poetical argument of the work, and in particular Nakkiranar's treatment of traditional love episodes as successives scenes in an unfolding drama, was extremely influential in the development of Tamil love poetry and poetics in the mediaeval and pre-colonial periods. Secondly. Nakkiranar's treatise is both the first major Tamil work to be written entirely in prose, and the first erudite textual commentary in Tamil, and as such stylistically shaped the development of the Tamil prose and commentarial traditions. Finally, the work also contains the oldest account of the Sangam legend, which has played a significant role in modern Tamil consciousness.
[edit] Layers, authorship and dating
The Iraiyanar Akapporul in its present form is a composite work, containing three distinct texts with different authors. These are sixty nurpas which constitute the core of the original Iraiyanar Akapporul, a long prose commentary on the nurpas, and a set of poems called the Pantikkovai which are embedded within the commentary.
[edit] The nurpas
The original Iraiyanar akapporul consisted of sixty brief verses - called nurpas - that, in total, contain 149 lines. The verses show a number of similarities with the porulatikaram section of the Tolkappiyam - an old manual on Tamil grammar, poetics and prosody - both in its vocabulary and the core concepts it discusses.[1] Takahashi suggests that this work was originally composed as a practical handbook for writing love poetry in accordance with the conventions of the akam tradition. The intent behind its composition, according to him, was to produce something that was more accessible and useful to poets than existing theoretical works on poetics, such as the porulatikaram.
The author of the sixty verses is unknown. Nakkiranar's commentary states that the verses were found inscribed on three copper plates under the altar to Shiva in Madurai, in the time of the Pandiyan king Ukkiraperuvaluti, who is also mentioned in the Akananuru as being the king who ordered its compilation. Nakkiranar says their author was Shiva himself, "the flame-hued lord of Alavayil in Madurai". Later sources, such as Ilampuranar's commentary on the Tolkappiyam, name the author of the sixty nurpas as "Iraiyanar", which literally means "lord", but is also a common name of Shiva. Apart from this legend, there is no tradition or concrete evidence as to who their human author was. Zvelebil and Marr suggest that the author was a poet or grammarian, possibly called Iraiyanar, and that the text itself had probably been stored in the temple at Madurai under Shiva's altar, where it was rediscovered in the time of Ukkiraperuvaluti.[2] A poem in the Sangam anthology Kuruntokai is also attributed to Iraiyanar, and Marr goes on to suggest that the author of the nurpas may have been the same person as the author of that poem.[3]
The verses are also difficult to date. The commentary says that they were composed in the Sangam period, but the scholarly consensus is that they are from a later date. Takahashi and Zvelebil assign them to a period between the fifth and sixth centuries, on the basis that their relationship to the porulatikaram suggests that they were composed a few generations after the final redaction of the porulatikaram, which they date to the 4th - 5th centuries. Marr takes the view that the similarities between the nurpas and the porulatikaram indicate that the two were broadly contemporaneous, and drew upon common poetic ideas and definitions.[4]
[edit] Nakkiranar's commentary
The second component of the work is Nakkiranar's treatise on love poetics which, although structured as a commentary, is treated by modern scholars as an erudite work in its own right. It is several times the length of the verses themselves, running to over two hundred pages in Tamil. The treatise is written in the tone and style of a discourse of the type that might be heard at a literary academy. The commentary uses a number of rhetorical devices. Nakkiranar repeatedly poses hypothetical questions and objections, to which he presents answers and rebuttals which are directly addressed to the reader, as if the reader himself was the questioner. He also uses stories, anecdtoes and legends to illustrate specific points, and draws extensively on the then-existing corpus of Tamil akam poetry to provide examples of the poetical techniques he discusses.
The commentary says that it was written by Nakkiranar, son of Kanakkayanar. A number of traditions connect Nakkiranar with the Sangam age. The commentary itself claims to have been written in the Sangam age, and names Nakkiranar as one of the poets of the Third Sangam. Later legends recorded in the Tiruvilayadarpuranam say he was the president of the Third Sangam, and there are extent Sangam poems attributed to a poet by that name. The scholarly consensus, however, is that the commentary was written some centuries after the end of the Sangam period, on the basis that its language differs significantly in structure and vocabulary from that of Sangam literature, and that it cites verses which use a metre - kattalaikkalitturai - not found in Sangam literature.[5] Zvelebil suggests that the Nakkiranar who wrote this commentary may be the same as the composer of the Tirumurukarruppatai.[6]
The commentary records that it was transmitted orally for eight generations, until it was finally committed to writing by Nilakantanar of Musiri, a tradition which Zvelebil and Marr find credible.[7] Early scholars, such as S. Vaiyapuri Pillai, dated the commentary to a period as late as the 10th - 12th century, on the basis that the author appeared to be familiar with the 10th century Civakacintamani. Modern scholars, however, tend to view these as later interpolations into the text, and date the commentary itself to a period closer to the 8th century on the basis of its relationship with the Pantikkovai. Zvelebil suggests that many of these may have been inserted by Nilakantanar of Musiri, who he suggests added an introduction and more modern quotations into the text when he wrote it down.[8]
[edit] The Pantikkovai
The third component of the text is the Pantikkovai, a work containing a series of related akam poems about the seventh century Pandiyan king, Nedumaran. Nakkiranar's commentary uses a number of verses from this poem to illustrate points he makes concerning the poetics of Tamil akam poetry - of the 379 quotations in the commentary, all but 50 are from the Pantikkovai. The Pantikkovai is believed to have had 400 quatrains in its original form, 329 of which are preserved in Nakkiranar's commentary. The author of the Pantikkovai is unknown; however, the poem is interesting in itself as one of the earliest literary works written in the form of a kovai - a series of interlinked poems which became one of the mainstays of akam poetry in mediaeval Tamil literature.
[edit] Modern editions and translations
The text of the Akapporul is almost always printed together with the commentary of Nakkiranar, and the two are usually treated as a unity. T.G. Aravamuthan suggests that Ilampuranar, the author of a celebrated 11th-12th century commentary on the Tolkappiyam, also wrote a second commentary on the work, but this is no longer extant.[9]
The text was transmitted for several centuries in the form palm-leaf manuscripts. The first printed edition was prepared by Damodaram Pillai in 1883. The first critical edition, based on a comparison of all manuscript copies that were then available, was prepared in 1939 by K.V. Govindaraja Mudaliyar and M.V. Venugopala Pillai. A second critical edition, which took into account a few additional manuscripts that came to light subsequently, was published by the Saiva Siddhantha Works Publishing Society in 1969.
An English translation of the nurpas and commentary was published by Buck and Paramasivan in 1997. A new translation, with annotations, is currently under preparation by a team of scholars including Jean-Luc Chevillard, Thomas Lehmann and Takanobu Takahashi, and is scheduled to be published in 2008.
[edit] Content
[edit] Context and influence
[edit] Poetical context
The treatise contains the oldest full-length exposition of poetical devices central to akam poetry, including the five tinais or landscapes into which all love poems were classified, and the various kurrus or speakers whose emotions and expression the poems sought to articulate. However, its principal purpose is not to clarify and explain the ancient akam tradition. The commentary also aims to explain the relationship between the old tradition - which mainly focused on short poems dealing with a single, detached scene in the life of a pair of lovers - and the then-emerging tradition of composing longer series of related poems which described successive episodes that cumulatively chart the entire course of a relationship.
It is in the last of these that the text had its longest-lasting impact.
The kovai came to dominate secular akam poetry in the mediaeval period. The very last example of akam poetry, written before the tradition was suppressed by seventeenth century religious revivalism, is a kovai, composed by Kachchaiyappar Sivachariyar.
[edit] Stylistic influences
Nakkiranar's commentary also created a basic template which all subsequent commentaries on Tamil texts followed.
[edit] Historical and social context
The work, and in particular the commentary of Nakkiranar, reinterprets the Tamil akam tradition in the light of the Shaivite bhakti tradition, which was then sweeping through Tamil Nadu in a wave of Hindu revivalism. A commentary, in the Indian tradition, plays an important role in reinterpreting and reworking the applicability of a text or tradition in the context of changing historical or social circumstances. Nakkiranar's commentary thus plays the role of reclaiming the Tamil akam tradition - secular in appearance, and associated with Jainism - for the Tamil Shaivite tradition. This reappropriation had a significant effect on the Tamil bhakti tradition, whose poems, from the ninth century onwards, make extensive use of the conventions of the akam tradition, but in the context of describing the love of a devotee for God.[10]
[edit] The Sangam legend
[edit] References
- Buck, David C. & Paramasivan, K. (1997), The Study of Stolen Love: A translation of Kalaviyal enra Iraiyanar Akapporul with Commentary by Nakkiranar, Atlanta: Scholars Press, ISBN 0788503316
- Marr, John Ralston (1985), The Eight Anthologies, Madras: Institute of Asian Studies
- Sivaraja Pillai, K. N. (1932), The Chronology of the Early Tamils, based on the synchronistic tables of their kings, chieftains and poets appearing in the Sangam literature, Madras: University of Madras
- Takahashi, Takanobu (1995), Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics, Leiden: E.J. Brill, ISBN 9004093524
- Zvelebil, Kamil (1973a), “The Earliest Account of the Tamil Academies”, Indo-Iranian Journal 15 (2): 109-135, DOI 10.1007/BF00157289
- Zvelebil, Kamil (1973b), The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India, Leiden: E.J. Brill, ISBN 9004035915
[edit] Akapporul Vilakkam
Akapporul vilakkam (Tamil: அகப்பொருள் விளக்கம் "An explanation of the love theme"), also known as Nambi akapporul ("Nambi's treatise on the love theme"), is a mediaeval treatise on Tamil akam poetics written by Narkavirasa Nambi (Tamil: நாற்கவிராச நம்பி). The treatise dates to the 13th century. It is closely associated with the Tancaivanankovai of Poyyamolipulavar, a set of connected poems in the form of a kovai on the life of the Pandiyan king Maravarman Kulasekara Pandiyan I, which was written as an ilakkiyam to illustrate the successive rules of Akapporul Vilakkam.
Unlike earlier works on akam poetics, the Akapporul Vilakkam divides the phases of a relationship into three, adding an intermediate phase of varaivu ("marriage") to the two phases of kalavu ("stolen love") and karpu ("chaste love") discussed in earlier texts. The text's discussion of the topics that are the subject of akam poetry is classified according to a hierarchy of situations and events (kilavi, vakai and viri), unlike earlier grammars which classify topics acccording to the speaker (kurru).
