Utamakura
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Utamakura (歌枕? literally "poem pillow") is a rhetorical concept in Japanese poetry.
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[edit] Definition
Utamakura is a category of poetic words, often involving place names, that allow for greater allusions and intertextuality across Japanese poems.
Utamakura includes locations familiar to the court of ancient Japan, such as
- particularly sacred Shinto and Buddhist sites,
- places where historic events occurred, and
- places that trigger a separate mental association through a pun.
[edit] Aesthetic Function
Utamakura serve as a significant tool to achieve yugen (mystery and depth) in Japanese poetry by adding profundity and indirect beauty in poems. Also, it can be used as a source for identifying significant figures and places in ancient Japan. Utamakura enables poets to express ideas and themes concisely and thus allowing them to stay within the confines of strict waka structures.
Some scholars see the use of geographical allusion as the evidence for a restricted scope of poetry writing. Although the poets' "true" meaning was true because the essence was initially pre-established, the poems were written within fixed topics (Daiei). The poet could inhabit a subjective position or persona and write about the topic, but not necessarily about his/her personal feelings. Utamakura could have suppressed poets' individuality or creativity.
[edit] History
The history of utamakura is found in documents on the study of poetry such as the Utamakura of Noin, by the poet and monk of the late Heian period, and lists of places in the Utamakura Nayose (Utamakura reference book).
Utamakura were first used by traveling priests. These priests collected stories from the different towns they traveled to. Since they traveled many places, it was easier to remember the details of a story by using a single, consistent reference point for each recurring type of event that occurred in their tales. Over time, the people across the Japan came to identify utamakura place names by the psychological feelings associated with the references made by the wandering priests.
After utamakura place names and people had become well established, eager waka poets went sightseeing to the sites of utamakura. Beyond becoming familiar with the actual scenery of the poems, entering the locale of a poem or story deepened one's understanding of it.
Utamakura was also used in renga, a form of Japanese collaborative poetry that is an ancestor of haiku poetry. In renga, the first phrase should contain a season word (kigo) to each hokku (a verse in the standard renga form of three verses with 5-7-5 syllables), but Matsuo Bashō stated if an Utamakura comes up into a hokku, then no seasonal term must appear to avoid complicating the imagery of the poem.
[edit] Examples of Utamakura
There are numerous instances of utamakura in Japanese literature, one of which is the Kokinshū. The source of this particular utamakura example is poem #3 in the "Spring" section of the Kokinshū.
harugasami
tateru ya izuko
Miyoshino no
Yoshino no yama ni
yuki wa furitsutsu
Where are the promised
mists of spring?
In Yoshino, fair hills
of Yoshino, snow
falling still.
-Anonymous, translation by Lewis Cook
In the poem above, Yoshino refers to a place in the Yamato region in the vicinity of the capital. Yoshino is known for having both heavy snowfall and an abundance of cherry blossoms.
Poem #1 in "Spring 1" of Shin Kokin Wakashū also uses Yoshino for depicting the beginning of spring:
Miyoshino wa
yama mo kasumite
shirayuki no
furinishi sato ni
haru wa kinikeri
Fair Yoshino, mountains
now wrapped in mist:
to the village where snow
was falling
spring has come.
-The Regent Prime Minister, translation by Lewis Cook
Another instance of poetic place-name comes from Tales of Ise, a piece entitled "In the Provinces (#15)."
Shinobuyama
shinobite kayou
michi mogana
hito no kokoro no
oku mo miru beku
I long to find a path
to the depths of Mount Shinobu
that I might fathom
the secrets
of another's heart.
- Translation by Jamie Newhard and Lewis Cook
Mount Shinobu is a pun on the verb shinobu, meaning "to conceal," "endure," "long for," and "remember."
[edit] Contemporary Examples of Utamakura
Today in Japan you can find many examples of utamakura in every day readings. Often, restaurant menu items will be named after their visual appearance with a reference to a well-known Japanese scenic area. For example, the Tatsuta River is famous for its red autumn maples. Therefore, a menu that includes tatsuta age will consist of crispy fish or chicken that was marinated in soy sauce before it was dredged in cornstarch and deep fried. The cornstarch coating absorbs some of the soy, so that when it is fried it takes on a burnished, russet color.
[edit] Parallels in Other Cultures
Utamakura can be described as "descriptive epithets" or "circumlocutions designating geographical sites" in poetry of other languages that conjure a memory, thought,image or association with the place referred to.
In Dante's Inferno (Canto VII, line 106) we see an example of Japanese utamakura, or poetic place name, in reference to the river Styx.
A lake is form'd, the Stygian name of old
By this sad stream, when downward it had run
Neath the gray rocks that nem the baleful hold.
The adjective, Stygian, means "of or relating to the River Styx."In Ancient Greek literature, the River Styx forms the boundary between Earth and Hades, the Underworld.
In contemporary Western cultures, parallels to the Japanese utamakura can be found in many popular songs. Musical artists use place names in their lyrics to invoke certain conformed thoughts associated with the sites mentioned by the musician. California is a common reference for many artists in that it invokes thoughts of excess, splendor, wealth, and a sense of fakeness in body and spirit. Weezer references the excessiveness of Beverly Hills in their hit song "Beverly Hills", while The Red Hot Chili Peppers refer to the sense of things not being "real" in their song "Californication" by including lyrics about plastic surgery and the use of Hollywood sets in government conspiracy.
[edit] Sources
- Kamens, Edward. Utamakura, Allusion, and Intertextuality in Traditional Japanese Poetry. Yale University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-300-06808-5
- Raud, Rein, “The Lover’s Subject: Its Construction and Relativization in the Poetry of the Heian Period”.
- Ed. Shirane, Harou. Traditional Japanese Literature.Columbia University Press: New York, 2007.
- Wright, Ichabod C (Translator). The Inferno of Dante.Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green and Longman: London, 1833.
