Tuskegee Airmen

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This article is about the World War II flyers. For the 1995 film, see The Tuskegee Airmen. For the non-profit organization, see Tuskegee Airmen, Inc.
The 332nd Fighter Group attends a briefing in Italy in 1945.
The 332nd Fighter Group attends a briefing in Italy in 1945.
Tuskegee Airmen (unofficial)
Center

Center
Emblems of wing
Active 1941 - 1946
Country United States
Branch US Army Air Corps
United States Army Air Forces
United States Air Force
Role Fighter unit
Part of 332d Fighter Group/Air Expeditionary Wing
Engagements World War II

The Tuskegee Airmen (pronounced /təˈskiːgi/[1]) was the popular name of a group of African American pilots who flew with distinction during World War II as the 332nd Fighter Group of the US Army Air Corps.

Contents

[edit] Origins

Prior to the Tuskegee Airmen, no U.S. military pilots had been black. A series of legislative moves by the United States Congress in 1941 forced the Army Air Corps to form an all-black combat unit, despite the War Department's reluctance. In an effort to eliminate the unit before it could begin, the War Department set up a system to accept only those with a level of flight experience or higher education that they expected would be hard to fill. This policy backfired when the Air Corps received an abundance of applications from men who qualified even under these restrictive specifications.

The U.S. Army Air Corps had established the Psychological Research Unit 1 at Maxwell Army Air Field, Alabama, and other units around the country for aviation cadet training, which included the identification, selection, education, and training of pilots, navigators and bombardiers. Psychologists employed in these research studies and training programs used some of the first standardized tests to quantify IQ, dexterity, and leadership qualities in order to select and train the right personnel for the right role (bombardier, pilot, navigator). The Air Corps determined that the same existing programs would be used for all units, including all-black units. At Tuskegee, this effort would continue with the selection and training of the Tuskegee Airmen.

[edit] Training

Major James A. Ellison returns the salute of Mac Ross of Dayton, Ohio, as he passes down the line during review of the first class of Tuskegee cadets; flight line at U.S. Army Air Corps basic and advanced flying school, Tuskegee, Alabama, 1941 with Vultee BT-13 trainers in the background.
Major James A. Ellison returns the salute of Mac Ross of Dayton, Ohio, as he passes down the line during review of the first class of Tuskegee cadets; flight line at U.S. Army Air Corps basic and advanced flying school, Tuskegee, Alabama, 1941 with Vultee BT-13 trainers in the background.

On 19 March 1941, the 99th Pursuit Squadron (Pursuit being the pre-World War II descriptive for "Fighter") was activated at Chanute Field in Rantoul, Illinois.[2] Over 250 enlisted men were trained at Chanute in aircraft ground support trades. This small number of enlisted men was to become the core of other black squadrons forming at Tuskegee and Maxwell Fields in Alabama.

In June 1941, the Tuskegee program officially began with formation of the 99th Fighter Squadron at the Tuskegee Institute, a highly regarded university founded by Lewis Adams in Tuskegee, Alabama.[3] The unit consisted of an entire service arm, including ground crew. After basic training at Moton Field, they were moved to the nearby Tuskegee Army Air Field about 16 km (10 miles) to the west for conversion training onto operational types. The Airmen were placed under the command of Capt. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., one of the few African American West Point graduates. His father Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. was the first black general in the U.S. Army.

Color poster of a Tuskegee Airman
Color poster of a Tuskegee Airman

During its training, the 99th Fighter Squadron was commanded by white and Puerto Rican officers, beginning with Maj. James Ellison. By 1942, however, it was Col. Frederick Kimble who oversaw operations at the Tuskegee airfield. Kimble maintained segregation on the field in deference to local customs – a policy the airmen resented.[4] Later that year, the Air Corps replaced Kimble with the director of Instruction at Tuskegee Army Airfield, Maj. Noel Parrish. Parrish, counter to the prevalent racism of the day, was fair and open-minded, and petitioned Washington to allow the Tuskegee Airmen to serve in combat.[citation needed]


[edit] Combat

The 99th was ready for combat duty during some of the Allies' earliest actions in the North African campaign, and was transported to Casablanca, Morocco, on the USS Mariposa. From there, they travelled by train to Oujda near Fes, and made their way to Tunis to operate against the Luftwaffe. The flyers and ground crew were largely isolated by racial segregation practices of their initial command, the 33rd Fighter Group and its commander Col. William W. Momyer, and left with little guidance from battle-experienced pilots beyond a week spent with Col. Phillip Cochran. The 99th's first combat mission was to attack the small but strategic volcanic island of Pantelleria in the Mediterranean Sea between Sicily and Tunisia, in preparation for the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943. The 99th moved to Sicily while attached to the 79th Fighter Group,[5] whose commander, Col. Earl Bates, fully involved the squadron, and the 99th received a Distinguished Unit Citation for its performance in Sicily.

Tuskegee Airmen in front of a P-40.
Tuskegee Airmen in front of a
P-40.


However, Col. Momyer told media sources in the U.S. that the 99th was a failure and its pilots cowardly, incompentent or worse, resulting in a critical article in Time magazine. In response, a hearing was convened before the House Armed Services Committee to determine whether the Tuskegee Airmen "experiment" should be allowed to continue. Momyer accused the Airmen of being incompetent—-based on the fact that they had seen little air-to-air combat during their time in theatre. To bolster the recommendation to scrap the project, a member of the committee commissioned and then submitted into evidence a "scientific" report by the University of Texas which purported to prove that Negroes were of low intelligence and incapable of handling complex situations (such as air combat). Col. Davis forcefully refuted the committee members' claims, but only the intervention of Col. Emmitt "Rosie" O'Donnell prevented a recommendation for disbandment of the squadron from being sent to president Franklin D. Roosevelt. General Hap Arnold decided an evaluation of all Mediterranean Theatre P-40 units would be undertaken to determine the true merits of the 99th. The results showed the 99th FS to be as good or better than the other American units operating the fighter.

Shortly after the hearing, three new squadrons fresh out of training at Tuskegee embarked for Africa. After several months operating separately, all four squadrons were combined to form the all-black 332nd Fighter Group.

The Tuskegee Airmen were initially equipped with P-40 Warhawks, briefly with P-39 Airacobras (March 1944), later with P-47 Thunderbolts (June-July 1944), and finally with the airplane that they would become most identified with, the P-51 Mustang (July 1944).

On 27 January and 28 January 1944, Luftwaffe Fw 190 fighter-bombers raided Anzio, where the Allies had conducted amphibious landings on January 22. Attached to the 79th Fighter Group, eleven of the 99th Fighter Squadron's pilots shot down enemy fighters, including Capt. Charles B. Hall, who claimed two shot down, bringing his aerial victory total to three. The eight fighter squadrons defending Anzio together claimed 32 German aircraft shot down whilst the 99th claimed the highest score among them with 13.[6]

Col. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., commander of the Tuskegee Airmen 332nd Fighter Group, in front of his P-47 Thunderbolt in Sicily.
Col. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., commander of the Tuskegee Airmen 332nd Fighter Group, in front of his P-47 Thunderbolt in Sicily.

The squadron won its second Distinguished Unit Citation on 12 May-14 May 1944, while attached to the 324th Fighter Group, attacking German positions on Monastery Hill (Monte Cassino), attacking infantry massing on the hill for a counterattack, and bombing a nearby strong point to force the surrender of the German garrison to Moroccan Goumiers.

By this point, more graduates were ready for combat, and the all-black 332nd Fighter Group had been sent overseas with three fighter squadrons: the 100th, 301st and 302nd. Under the command of Col. Benjamin O. Davis, the squadrons were moved to mainland Italy, where the 99th FS, assigned to the group on 1 May, joining them on 6 June. The Airmen of the 332nd Fighter Group escorted bombing raids into Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Poland and Germany.

Flying escort for heavy bombers, the 332nd racked up an impressive combat record. Reportedly, the Luftwaffe awarded the Airmen the nickname, "Schwarze Vogelmenschen," or "Black Birdmen." The Allies called the Airmen "Redtails" or "Redtail Angels," because of the distinctive crimson paint on the vertical stabilizers of the unit's aircraft. Although bomber groups would request Redtail escort when possible, few bomber crew members knew at the time that the Redtails were black.[citation needed]

Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group, "Tuskegee Airmen," the elite, all-African American 332nd Fighter Group at Ramitelli, Italy. From left to right, Lt. Dempsey W. Morgan, Lt. Carroll S. Woods, Lt. Robert H. Nelron, Jr., Capt. Andrew D. Turner and Lt. Clarence P. Lester.
Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group, "Tuskegee Airmen," the elite, all-African American 332nd Fighter Group at Ramitelli, Italy. From left to right, Lt. Dempsey W. Morgan, Lt. Carroll S. Woods, Lt. Robert H. Nelron, Jr., Capt. Andrew D. Turner and Lt. Clarence P. Lester.

A B-25 bomb group, the 477th Bombardment Group (Medium), was forming in the U.S. but completed its training too late to see action. The 99th Fighter Squadron after its return to the United States became part of the 477th, redesignated the 477th Composite Group.

By the end of the war, the Tuskegee Airmen were credited with 109 Luftwaffe aircraft shot down,[6] the German-operated Italian destroyer TA-23 sunk by machine-gun fire, and destruction of numerous fuel dumps, trucks and trains. The squadrons of the 332nd FG flew more than 15,000 sorties on 1,500 missions. The unit received recognition through official channels and was awarded a Distinguished Unit Citation for a mission flown March 24, 1945, escorting B-17s to bomb the Daimler-Benz tank factory at Berlin, Germany, an action in which its pilots were credited with destroying three Me-262 jets, all belonging to the Luftwaffe's all-jet Jagdgeschwader 7, in aerial combat that day, despite the American unit initially claiming 11 Me 262s on that particular mission.[7] However on examing German records, JG 7 records just four Me 262s were lost and all of the pilots survived.[8] In return the 463rd Bomb Group, one of the many B-17 groups the 322nd were escorting, lost two bombers.[9] The 322nd themselves lost three P-51s during the mission[10]. The bombers also made substantial claims, making it impossible to tell which units were responsible for those individual four kills. The 99th Fighter Squadron in addition received two DUCs, the second after its assignment to the 332nd FG.[5] The Tuskegee Airmen were awarded several Silver Stars, 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses, 8 Purple Hearts, 14 Bronze Stars and 744 Air Medals.

In all, 992 pilots were trained in Tuskegee from 1940 to 1946; about 445 deployed overseas, and 150 Airmen lost their lives in training or combat.[11]

[edit] Controversy over the escort record

While it had long been said that the Redtails were the only fighter group who never lost a bomber to enemy fighters,[12] suggestions to the contrary, combined with Air Force records and eyewitness accounts indicating that at least 25 bombers were lost to enemy fire[13], resulted in the Air Force conducting a reassessment of the history of this famed unit in late 2006.

The claim that no bomber escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen had ever been lost to enemy fire first appeared on 24 March 1945, in the Chicago Defender, under the headline "332nd Flies Its 200th Mission Without Loss." According to the 28 March 2007 Air Force report, however, some bombers under 332nd Fighter Group escort protection were shot down on the very day the Chicago Defender article was published.[14][15][16][17] The subsequent report, based on after-mission reports filed by both the bomber units and Tuskegee fighter groups as well as missing air crew records and witness testimony, was released in March 2007 and documented 25 bombers shot down by enemy fighter aircraft while being escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen.[18]

Tuskegee Airmen gathered at a U.S. base after a mission in the Mediterranean theater.
Tuskegee Airmen gathered at a U.S. base after a mission in the Mediterranean theater.

The controversy continued to attract news media attention in 2008. A St. Petersburg Times article quoted a historian at the Air Force Historical Research Agency as confirming the loss of up to 25 bombers. Disputing this, a professor at the National Defense University in Washington said he researched more than 200 Tuskegee Airmen mission reports and found no bombers were lost to enemy fighters. Bill Holloman, a Tuskegee airman who taught black studies at the University of Washington and now chairs the Airmen's history committee, was reported by the Times as saying his review of records did confirm lost bombers, but "the Tuskegee story is about pilots who rose above adversity and discrimination and opened a door once closed to black America — not about whether their record is perfect".[19]

Aircraft of the 332d Fighter Group; the "Redtails" of the Tuskegee Airmen. The nearest aircraft depicted is that of Lt. Lee Archer, the only ace among the Tuskegee Airmen.
Aircraft of the 332d Fighter Group; the "Redtails" of the Tuskegee Airmen. The nearest aircraft depicted is that of Lt. Lee Archer, the only ace among the Tuskegee Airmen.

One mission report states that on 26 July 1944: "1 B-24 seen spiraling out of formation in T/A (target area) after attack by E/A (enemy aircraft). No chutes seen to open." A second report, dated 31 August 1944, praises group commander Gen. Benjamin O. Davis Jr. by saying he "so skillfully disposed his squadrons that in spite of the large number of enemy fighters, the bomber formation suffered only a few losses."[citation needed]

[edit] Postwar

Far from failing as originally expected, a combination of pre-war experience and the personal drive of those accepted for training had resulted in some of the best pilots in the U.S. Army Air Corps. Nevertheless, the Tuskegee Airmen continued to have to fight racism. Their combat record did much to quiet those directly involved with the group (notably bomber crews who often requested them for escort), but other units were less than interested and continued to harass the Airmen.

All of these events appear to have simply stiffened the Airmen's resolve to fight for their own rights in the US. After the war, the Tuskegee Airmen once again found themselves isolated. In 1949, the 332nd entered the annual All Air Force Gunnery Meet in Las Vegas, Nevada and won. After segregation in the military was ended in 1948 by President Harry S. Truman with Executive Order 9981, the Tuskegee Airmen now found themselves in high demand throughout the newly formed United States Air Force.

Many of the surviving members of the Tuskegee Airmen annually participate in the Tuskegee Airmen Convention, which is hosted by Tuskegee Airmen, Inc.[20]

In 2005, four Tuskegee Airmen (Lt. Col. Lee Archer, Lt. Col. Robert Ashby, MSgt. James Sheppard, and TechSgt. George Watson) flew to Balad, Iraq, to speak to active duty airmen serving in the current incarnation of the 332nd, reactivated as first the 332nd Air Expeditionary Group in 1998 and made part of the 332nd Air Expeditionary Wing. "This group represents the linkage between the 'greatest generation' of airmen and the 'latest generation' of airmen," said Lt. Gen. Walter E. Buchanan III, commander of the Ninth Air Force and US Central Command Air Forces, in an e-mail to the Associated Press.

[edit] Legacy and honors

President George W. Bush presents the Congressional Gold Medal to about 300 Tuskegee Airmen at the US Capitol rotunda on 29 March 2007 in Washington, D.C.
President George W. Bush presents the Congressional Gold Medal to about 300 Tuskegee Airmen at the US Capitol rotunda on 29 March 2007 in Washington, D.C.
"Red Tails" continue to fly in the 99th Flying Training Squadron at Randolph Air Force Base in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen
"Red Tails" continue to fly in the 99th Flying Training Squadron at Randolph Air Force Base in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen

On 29 March 2007, about 350 Tuskegee Airmen and their widows were collectively awarded the Congressional Gold Medal[21] at a ceremony in the US Capitol rotunda.[22][23][24] The medal will go on display at the Smithsonian Institution; individual honorees will receive bronze replicas.[25]

The airfield where the airmen trained is now the Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site.[26]

In 2006, California Congressman Adam Schiff, and Missouri Congressman William Lacy Clay, Jr., have led the initiative to create a commemorative postage stamp to honor the Tuskegee Airmen.[27]

The 99th Flying Training Squadron flies T-1A Jayhawks and, in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen, they are in the process of painting the tails of their aircraft red.

[edit] Popular culture

  • Wings for This Man (1945), a "propaganda" short about the Tuskegee Airmen, was produced by the First Motion Picture Unit of the Army Air Forces. The film was narrated by Ronald Reagan.[28]
  • The Tuskegee Airmen (1996) starring Laurence Fishburne was produced and aired by HBO.[29]
  • The Tuskegee Airmen (1997) are represented in the G.I. Joe action figure series.[30]
  • The Wild Blue: The Men and Boys who Flew the B-24s over Germany (2001) book by Stephen Ambrose describes the Tuskegee Airmen in a tribute to their achievements.[31]
  • Silver Wings and Civil Rights: The Fight to Fly (2004) documentary was the first film to feature information regarding the "Freeman Field Mutiny," the struggle of 101 African-American officers arrested for entering a white officer's club.[32][33]
  • George Lucas announced in 17 May 2005, he was planning a film titled Red Tails about the Tuskegee Airmen. In his release Lucas said, "They were the only escort fighters during the war that never lost a bomber so they were, like, the best."[34][35]


[edit] Images

Patch of the 100th Fighter Squadron

Patch of the 99th Fighter Squadron

Two airmen next to a P-51 Mustang. Photo by Toni Frissell, taken in Europe, March 1945

[edit] References

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ See Pronunciation of Tuskegee.
  2. ^ Francis 1988, p. 15. Note: It was a lawsuit or the threat of a law suit from a rejected candidate that caused the USAAC to accept black applicants.
  3. ^ Thole 2002, p. 48. Note: The Coffey School of Aeronautics in Chicago was also considered.
  4. ^ Francis, Charles E. The Tuskegee Airmen: The Men Who Changed a Nation . Boston: Brandon Publishing, 1988. ISBN 0-82831-386-5.
  5. ^ a b Air Force Historical Study 82. AFHRA Maxwell AFB. Maxwell AFB Retrieved: 16 February 2007.
  6. ^ a b Haulman, Dr. Daniel L. Aerial Victory Credits of the Tuskegee Airmen. AFHRA Maxwell AFB. Air Force Retrieved: 16 February 2007.
  7. ^ Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 276.
  8. ^ Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 276.
  9. ^ Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 276.
  10. ^ Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 276.
  11. ^ Tuskegee Airmen
  12. ^ [http://www.pingry.k12.nj.us/about/articles/2002-nov-11-tuskegee.html Lt. Col. Thomas E. Highsmith, Jr.; speech at The Pingry School, 8 November 2002
  13. ^ An uneasy question for the Tuskegee Airmen
  14. ^ "Report: Tuskegee Airmen lost 25 bombers." USA Today, 1 April 2007. Retrieved: 1 April 2007.
  15. ^ Article ID:539246 Comcast.net news. Retrieved: 11 December 2006.
  16. ^ Ex-Pilot Confirms Bomber Loss, Flier Shot down in 1944 was Escorted by Tuskegee Airmen. Washington Post, 17 December 2006, p. A18.
  17. ^ AP Story 29 March 2007
  18. ^ "Report: Tuskegee Airmen lost 25 bombers." The Associated Press, 2 April 2007. Retrieved: 10 April 2007.
  19. ^ Levesque, William R. "An uneasy question for the Tuskegee Airmen." St. Petersburg Times, 26 January 2008.
  20. ^ Tuskegee Airmen Inc.
  21. ^ Library of Congress. Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concurring), That the Rotunda of the Capitol is authorized to be used on 29 March 2007, for a ceremony to award a Congressional... (Engrossed as Agreed to or Passed by Senate), 7 March 2007.
  22. ^ Price, Deb. "Nation to honor Tuskegee Airmen."The Detroit News, 29 March 2007. Retrieved: 29 March 2007.
  23. ^ Tuskegee Airmen Gold Medal Bill Signed Into Law. Office of Congressman Charles B. Rangel. [1] Retrieved: 26 October 2006.
  24. ^ Evans, Ben. "Tuskegee Airmen awarded Congressional Gold Medal." Associated Press, 30 March 2007. Retrieved: 30 April 2007.
  25. ^ AP Story 29 March 2007
  26. ^ Official NPS website: Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site
  27. ^ Votes to Honor Tuskegee Airmen
  28. ^ Wings for This Man at the Internet Movie Database
  29. ^ The Tuskegee Airmen at the Internet Movie Database
  30. ^ 1997 G.I. Joe Classic Collection
  31. ^ Ambrose 2001, p. 27.
  32. ^ Silver Wings & Civil Rights: The Fight to Fly at the Internet Movie Database
  33. ^ Siver Wings and Civil Rights: The Flight to Fly
  34. ^ Red Tails at the Internet Movie Database
  35. ^ Exclusive: Lucas looks to the future

[edit] Bibliography

  • Ambrose, Stephen Edward. The Wild Blue: The Men and Boys who Flew the B-24s over Germany. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0-74320-339-9.
  • Broadnax, Samuel L. Blue Skies, Black Wings: African American Pioneers of Aviation. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 2007. ISBN 0-27599-195-4.
  • Bucholtz, Chris and Laurier, Jim. 332nd Fighter Group - Tuskegee Airmen. London: Osprey Publishing, 2007. ISBN 1-84603-044-7.
  • Caldwell, Donald & Muller, Richard (2007). The Luftwaffe over Germany: Defense of the Reich. London: Greenhill Books. ISBN 978-1-85367-712-0
  • Cotter, Jarrod. "Red Tail Project." Flypast No. 248, March 2002.
  • Francis, Charles F. The Tuskegee Airmen: The Men who Changed a Nation. Boston: Branden Publishing Company, 1988. ISBN 0-8283-1908-1.
  • Hill, Ezra M. Sr. The Black Red Tail Angels: A Story of the Tuskegee Airmen. Columbus, Ohio: SMF Haven of Hope. 2006.
  • Holway, John B. Red Tail, Black Wings: The Men of America's Black Air Force. Las Cruces, New Mexico: Yuca Tree Press, 1997. ISBN 1-88132-521-0.
  • Leuthner, Stuart and Jensen, Olivier. High Honor: Recollections by Men and Women of World War II Aviation. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989. ISBN 0-87474-650-7.
  • McKissack, Patricia C. and Fredrick L. Red Tail Angels: The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II. New York: Walker Books for Young Readers, 1996. ISBN 0-80278-292-2.
  • Ross, Robert A. Lonely Eagles: The Story of America's Black Air Force in World War II. Los Angeles: Tuskegee Airmen Inc., Los Angeles Chapter, 1980. ISBN 0-917612-00-0.
  • Sandler, Stanley. Segregated Skies: All-Black Combat Squadrons of WWII. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992. ISBN 1-56098-154-7.
  • Thole, Lou. "Segregated Skies." Flypast No, 248, March 2002.

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[edit] See also

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