Troilus and Cressida
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Troilus and Cressida is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1602. The play (also described as one of Shakespeare's problem plays) is not a conventional tragedy, since its protagonist (Troilus) does not die. The play ends instead on a very bleak note with the death of the noble Trojan Hector and destruction of the love between Troilus and Cressida. Throughout the play, the tone lurches wildly between bawdy comedy and tragic gloom, and readers and theatre-goers have frequently found it difficult to understand how one is meant to respond to the characters. However, several characteristic elements of the play (the most notable being its constant questioning of intrinsic values such as hierarchy, honor and love) have often been viewed as distinctly "modern", as in the following remarks on the play by author and literary scholar Joyce Carol Oates;
Troilus and Cressida, that most vexing and ambiguous of Shakespeare's plays, strikes the modern reader as a contemporary document—its investigation of numerous infidelities, its criticism of tragic pretensions, above all, its implicit debate between what is essential in human life and what is only existential are themes of the twentieth century. [...] This is tragedy of a special sort—the "tragedy" the basis of which is the impossibility of conventional tragedy.[1]
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[edit] Textual Questions
The Quarto edition labels it a history play with the title The Famous Historie of Troylus and Cresseid, but the First Folio classed it with the tragedies, under the title The Tragedie of Troylus and Cressida. The confusion is compounded by the fact that in the original pressing of the First Folio, the play's pages are unnumbered, and the title has obviously been squeezed into the Table of Contents. Based on this evidence, scholars believe it was a very late addition to the Folio, and therefore may have been added wherever there was room.
[edit] Sources
The story of Troilus and Cressida is a medieval tale that is not part of Greek mythology; Shakespeare drew on a number of sources for this plotline, in particular Chaucer's version of the tale, Troilus and Criseyde, but also John Lydgate's Troy Book and Caxton's translation of the Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye[2].
The story of the persuasion of Achilles into battle is drawn from Homer's Iliad (perhaps in the translation by George Chapman), and from various medieval and Renaissance retellings.
The story was a popular one for dramatists in the early 1600s and Shakespeare may have been inspired by contemporary plays. Thomas Heywood's two-part play The Iron Age also depicts the Trojan war and the story of Troilus and Cressida, but it is not certain whether his or Shakespeare's play was written first. In addition, Thomas Dekker and Henry Chettle wrote a play called Troilus and Cressida at around the same time as Shakespeare, but this play survives only as a fragmentary plot outline.
[edit] Date and Text
The play is believed to have been written around 1602, shortly after the completion of Hamlet. It was published in quarto in two separate editions, both in 1609. It is not known whether the play was ever performed in its own time, because the two editions contradict each other: one announces on the title page that the play had been recently performed on stage; the other claims in a preface that it is a new play that has never been staged. The play was entered into the Register of the Stationers Company on February 7, 1603 by the bookseller and printer James Roberts, with a mention that the play was acted by the Lord Chamberlain's Men, Shakespeare's company. No publication followed, however, until 1609; the stationers Richard Bonian and Henry Walley re-registered the play on Jan. 28, 1609, and later that year issued the first quarto, but in two "states." The first says the play was "acted by the King's Majesty's servants at the Globe;" the second version omits the mention of the Globe Theatre, and prefaces the play with a long Epistle that claims that Troilus and Cressida is "a new play, never stal'd with the stage...."[3]
Some commentators (like Georg Brandes, the Danish Shakespeare scholar of the late nineteenth century) have attempted to reconcile these contradictory claims by arguing that the play was composed originally around 1600-02, but heavily revised shortly before its 1609 printing. The play is noteworthy for its bitter and caustic nature, similar to the works that Shakespeare was writing in the 1605-8 period, King Lear, Coriolanus, and Timon of Athens. In this view, the original version of the play was a more positive romantic comedy of the type Shakespeare wrote ca. 1600, like As You Like It and Twelfth Night, while the later revision injected the darker material – leaving the result a hybrid jumble of tones and intents.
[edit] Performance history
The play's puzzling and intriguing nature has meant that Troilus and Cressida has rarely been popular on stage, and neither during Shakespeare's own life time nor between 1734 and 1898 is there any recorded performance of the play. In the Restoration, John Dryden rewrote it. Dryden announces that he intended to uncover the "jewels" of Shakespeare's verse, hidden beneath a "heap of rubbish" (not only some "ungrammatical" and indecorous expressions, but also much of the plot.) In addition to his "improvements" to the language, Dryden streamlined the council scenes and sharpened the rivalry between Ajax and Achilles. Dryden's largest change, though, was in the character of Cressida, who in his play is loyal to Troilus throughout.
It was also condemned by the Victorians for its explicit sexual references. It was not staged in its original form until the early twentieth century, but since then, it has become increasingly popular, especially after the First World War, due to its cynical depiction of people's immorality and disillusionment. Its popularity in the United States reached a peak in the 1960s when public discontent with the Vietnam War increased exponentially.[citation needed] The play's main overall themes about a long period of war, the cynical breaking of one's public oaths, and the lack of morality among Cressida and the Greeks resonated strongly with a discontented public and led to numerous stagings of this play since it highlighted the gulf between one's ideals and the bleak reality.
[edit] Characters
[edit] Trojans
- Aeneas, a commander
- Andromache, Hector's wife
- Antenor, another commander
- Calchas, a Trojan priest who is taking part with the Greeks
- Cressida, Calchas' daughter
- Alexander, servant to Cressida
- Pandarus, Cressida's uncle and jester
- Priam, King of Troy
- Priam's children Cassandra (a prophetess), Hector, Troilus, Paris, Deiphobus, Helenus and Margarelon (bastard)
[edit] Greeks
- Agamemnon, King of the Greeks and leader of the Greek invasion
- Achilles, prince
- Ajax, prince
- Diomedes, prince
- Nestor, wise and talkative prince
- Ulysses (Odysseus), prince
- Menelaus, King of Sparta, brother to Agamemnon
- Helen, wife to Menelaus, living with Paris
- Thersites, a deformed and scurrilous low-class "fool"
- Patroclus, friend (or "masculine whore") of Achilles
[edit] Synopsis
Troilus and Cressida is set during the latter years of the Trojan War, faithfully following the plotline of the Iliad from Achilles' refusal to participate in battle to Hector's death.
Essentially, two plots are followed in this play. In one, Troilus, a Trojan prince (son of Priam), woos Cressida, another Trojan. They have sex, professing their undying love, before Cressida is exhanged for a Trojan prisoner of war. As he attempts to visit her in the Greek camp, Troilus glimses Diomedes flirting with his beloved Cressida, and decides to avenge her perfidy.
While this plot serves as an eponym for the Troilus and Cressida, it accounts for only a small part of its run time. The majority of the play revolves around leaders of the Greek and Trojan forces; the former attempt to get the proud Achilles to return to battle and face Hector, who sends the Greeks a letter telling them of his willingness to engage in one-on-one combat with a single Greek soldier. Ajax is originally chosen as this combatant, but makes peace with Hector before they are able to fight. Achilles is only prompted to return to battle after his beloved friend and debated male lover, Patroclus, is killed by Hector before the Trojan walls. A series of skirmishes conclude the play, during which Achilles catches Hector baresark, and has the Myrmidons kill him. The conquest of Troy is left unfinished, as the Trojans learn of the death of their hero.
[edit] Themes and motifs
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- Sex / War
Perhaps unsurprisingly, given that the titular plot hinges around sexual relations during war, (and the whole war revolves around who has the right to sleep with Helen) sex and battle are linked constantly within the play. For example, a frustrated Troilus moans at the beginning: "I cannot fight upon this argument / It is too starved a subject for my sword" — "sword" being an obvious phallic symbol. Similarly, the word "unarm" appears frequently in relation to the fighting; slang for losing an erection.[citation needed] When Troilus is about to have sex with Cressida, he fears the experience will be such bliss that "I shall lose distinction in my joys; / As doth a battle, when they charge on heaps / The enemy flying." This comparison makes sex seem a loveless, physical, almost brutal activity.
- Thwarted expectations
From the very beginning of the play, the audience's expectations are constantly thwarted. Despite a Prologue claiming the emphasis of the play is militancy, it opens with a procrastinating Troilus calling for someone to "unarm" him. Despite being called "Troilus and Cressida", Cressida rarely appears. Despite being set in the Trojan War, there is virtually no fighting for the first four acts; just political maneuvering and petty squabbles. The Greek and Trojan heroes depicted are markedly different from their portrayals in the Homeric epics. Troilus is little like the betrayed lover in Chaucer. Having got used to the philosophy and punning comedy of the first four acts, we do not expect a harsh, unglamourized battle in the fifth. This experience of the audience is mirrored by most of the characters. Agamemnon tries to rouse his disillusioned generals by telling them that expectations are always thwarted: "the ample proposition that hope makes / In all designs... / Fails in the promis'd largeness".
[edit] Adaptations and cultural references
In his semi-autobiographical novel My Brother Jack, George Johnston refers to his second wife as Cressida, implying that he himself is Troilus. This 'sets the stage' for their relationship, which is tumultuous and unconventional.
The First Doctor Doctor Who Episode The Myth Makers has one of the Doctor's companions, Vicki, meet and fall for Troilus. She remains behind after the Doctor leaves, and renames herself Cressida.
[edit] Musical Adaptations
The story has been adapted as an opera, Troilus and Cressida, by William Walton in 1954.
[edit] References
- ^ Oates, Joyce Carol (1966/1967). The Tragedy of Existence: Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida. Originally published as two separate essays, in Philological Quarterly, Spring 1967, and Shakespeare Quarterly, Spring 1966.
- ^ Palmer, Kenneth (ed.) (1982). Troilus and Cressida (Arden Shakespeare: Second Series). Methuen: London.
- ^ Halliday, F.E. (1964). A Shakespeare Companion 1564-1964, Penguin: Baltimore, pp. 501-3.
[edit] External links
- The History of Troilus and Cressida - HTML version of this title.
- Troilus and Cressida - plain vanilla text from Project Gutenberg
- Troilus and Cressida Homepage, Internet Shakespeare Editions. Links to text editions, book facsimiles, performances, and internet sites.
- SparkNotes Chapter Summaries and Study Guides
- Theatre for a New Audience: Troilus and Cressida An in-depth description and discussion (written by Tom Dale Keever and renowned Shakespearean scholar David Scott Kastan) of a 2001 Peter Hall production of the play, replete with illuminating references to earlier productions of the play.
