User:Timothy Perper/Combined

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This page is for the combined formatted and final sections of the Manga revision. We just keep adding stuff to it as stuff gets finished.

BTW, the primary editors of this material are Timothy Perper and Peregrine Fisher -- if you have questions or problems, or want to suggest revisions, please discuss them on our talk pages OR on the Manga talk page and don't make changes in this page.

The reason is that we use this page for transferring to the main entry. This is a purely mechanical issue, done to avoid Horrible Glitches when the material is transferred.

Contents

[edit] Combined Text

[edit] Revision

"Original manga" redirects here. For English-language comics inspired by manga and anime drawings, see Original English-language manga.
This page is about the comics published in East Asian countries. For other uses, see Manga (disambiguation).
Anime and Manga Portal

INTRODUCTION Manga (漫画?) listen (help·info) is the Japanese word for comics (sometimes also called komikku コミック).(Lent 149)[1][2] In their modern form, manga date from shortly after World War II[3] but have a long, complex history in earlier Japanese art.[4][5][6] In Japan, manga are widely read by children, adolescent boys and girls, and adult men and women.(Gravett somewhere around page 14)[7] A broad range of subjects and topics occur in manga, including action/adventure, romance, sports and games, historical drama, comedy, science fiction and fantasy, mystery, horror, sexuality, and business and commerce, among others.[7] Since the 1950s, manga have steadily become a major part of the Japanese publishing industry,[3][8] representing a 481 billion yen market in Japan in 2006 [9] (approximately 4.4 billion dollars[10]). Manga have also become increasingly popular in the US and worldwide.[11][12] In 2006, the United States manga market was $175-200 million.[13]

Manga are typically printed in black-and-white,[14] although some full-color manga exist (e.g. Colorful[15]). In Japan, manga are usually serialized in telephone book-size manga magazines, often containing many stories each presented in a single episode to be continued in the next issue.(Schodt 1986 p. 13)[6][7] If the series is sucessful, collected chapters may be republished in paperback books called tankōbon.(Schodt p. 12 or p. 13 probably?)[6][7] A manga artist (mangaka in Japanese; 漫画家) typically works with a few assistants in a small studio and is associated with a creative editor from a commercial publishing company,[3] If a manga series is popular enough, it may be animated after publication.[16] although sometimes manga are drawn centering on previously existing live-action or animated films[17][18] (e.g. Star Wars[19]).

Manga and manga-like comics exist in Korea ("manhwa")[20] and in the People's Republic of China plus Hong Kong ("manhua").[21] In France, "la nouvelle manga" is a form of bande dessinée drawn in styles influenced by Japanese manga.[22] In the United States, manga-like comics are called Amerimanga, world manga, or original English-language manga (OEL) manga.[23]

[edit] Origins/History

[edit] An Overview of Ideas about Manga History

Historians and writers on manga history have described two broad and complementary processes shaping modern manga. Their views differ in the relative importance they attribute to the role of cultural and historical events following WWII versus the role of pre-War, Meiji, and pre-Meiji Japanese culture and art.

The first view emphasizes events occurring during and after the US Occupation of Japan (1945-1952), and stresses that manga was strongly shaped by United States cultural influences, including US comics brought to Japan by the GIs and by images and themes from American television, film, and animated cartoons (especially Disney).(Kinsella 28)[3](Schody 1986 p. 63)[6] Kinsella also sees a central role for how the booming post-war Japanese publishing industry helped create a consumer-oriented society in which publishing giants like Kodansha could shape popular taste.[3]

Japanese scholars like Takashi Murakami have also stressed events after WWII, but Murakami sees Japan’s staggering defeat and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as having created long-lasting scars on the Japanese artistic psyche, which, in this view, lost its previously virile confidence in itself and sought solace in harmless and cute (“kawaii”) images.[24] However, Takayumi Tatsumi sees a special role for a transpacific economic and cultural transnationalism that created a postmodern and shared international youth culture of cartooning, film, television, music, and related popular arts, which was, for Tatsumi the crucible in which modern manga have developed.[25]

For Murakami and Tatsumi, transnationalism (or globalization) refers specifically to the flow of cultural and subcultural material from one nation to another.[24][25] In their usage, the term does not refer to international corporate expansion, nor to international tourism, nor to cross-border international personal friendships, but to ways in which artistic, aesthetic, and intellectual traditions influence each other across national boundaries.[24][25] An example of cultural transnationalism is the creation of Star Wars films in the United States, their transformation into manga by Japanese artists, and the marketing of Star Wars manga to the United States.[26] Another example is the transfer of hip-hop culture from the United States to Japan. [27] Wong also sees a major role for transnationalism in the recent history of manga.[11]

However, other writers stress continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions as central to the history of manga. These scholars include Frederik L. Schodt,[6][8] Kinko Ito,[28] and Adam L. Kern.[29]

Schodt points to the existence in the 1200s of illustrated picture scrolls like the Tobae scrolls that told stories in sequential images with humor and wit.(Schodt probably p. 37)[6] Schodt also stresses continuities of aesthetic style and vision between ukiyo-e and shunga woodblock prints and modern manga (all three fulfill Eisner’s criteria [30] for sequential art). Schodt also sees a particularly significant role for kami-shibai, a form of street theater where itinerant artists displayed pictures in a light box while narrating the story to audiences in the street.(Schodt 1986 p.62)[6] Torrance has pointed to similarities between modern manga and the Osaka popular novel between the 1890s and 1940, and argues that the development of widespread literacy in Meiji and post-Meiji Japan helped create audiences for stories told in words and pictures.[31]

Kinko Ito also roots manga historically in aesthetic continuity with pre-Meiji art, but she sees its post-World War II history as driven in part by consumer enthusiasm for the rich imagery and narrative of the newly developing manga tradition. Ito describes how this tradition has steadily produced new genres and markets, e.g., for girls’ (shojo) manga in the late 1960s and for ladies comics (redisu) in the 1980s.[28]

Kern has suggested that kibyoshi, illustrated picture books from the late 1700s, may have been the world’s first comic books. These graphical narratives share with modern manga humorous, satirical, and romantic themes.[29] Although Kern does not believe that kibyoshi were a direct forerunner of manga, nonetheless, for Kern the existence of kibyoshi points to a Japanese willingness to mix words and pictures in a popular story-telling medium. The first recorded use of the term "manga" to mean “whimsical or impromptu pictures” comes from this tradition in 1798, which, Kern 2006 points out, predates Katsuhiko Hokusai’s better known later usage[32] by several decades. (Kern, 2006, pages 139-144; Figure 3.3).[29]

Similarly, Inoue sees manga as being a mixture of image- and word-centered elements, each pre-dating the American occupation of Japan. In his view, Japanese image-centered (pictocentric) art ultimately derives from Japan’s long history of engagement with Chinese graphic art, whereas word-centered (logocentric) art, like the novel, was stimulated by social and economic needs of Meiji and pre-War Japanese nationalism for a populace unified by a common written language. Both fuse in what Inoue sees as a symbiosis in manga.[33]

Thus, these scholars see the history of manga as involving historical continuities and discontinuities between the aesthetic and cultural past as it interacts with post-World War II innovation and transnationalism.

[edit] Manga After World War II

Modern manga originates in the Occupation (1945-1952) and post-Occupation years (1952-early 1960s), when a previously militaristic and ultranationalist Japan was rebuilding its political and economic infrastructure.[6][34] Although United States Occupation censorship policies specifically targeted art and writing that glorified war and Japanese militarism,(Schodt 1986 p. 128)[6] those policies did not prevent the publication of other kinds of material, including manga. Furthermore, the 1947 Japanese Constitution (Article 21) prohibited censorship of all forms.[35] One result was an explosion of artistic creativity in this period.(Schodt 1986 somewhere around page 128)[6]

In the forefront of this period are two manga series and characters that influenced much of the future history of manga. These are Osamu Tezuka’s Mighty Atom (Astro Boy in the United States; begun in 1951) and Michiko Hasegawa’s Sazae-san (begun in 1946).

Astro Boy himself was both a superpowered robot and a naive little boy.[36] Tezuka never explained why Astro Boy had such a highly developed social conscience nor what kind of robot programming could make him so deeply affiliative.[36] Both seem innate to Astro Boy, and represent a Japanese sociality and community-oriented masculinity differing very much from the Emperor-worship and militaristic obedience enforced during the previous period of Japanese imperialism.[36] Astro Boy quickly became (and remains) immensely popular in Japan and elsewhere as an icon and hero of a new world of peace and the renunciation of war, as also seen in Article 9 of the Japanese constitution.[35][36] Similar themes occur in Tezuka’s New World and Metropolis.[6][36]

By contrast, Sazae-san (meaning “Ms. Sazae”) was drawn starting in 1946 by Michiko Hasegawa, a young woman artist who made her heroine a stand-in for millions of Japanese men and especially women rendered homeless by the war.(Schodt 1986 p, 96)[6][7] Sazae-san does not face an easy or simple life, but, like Astro Boy, she too is highly affiliative and is deeply involved with her immediate and extended family. She is also a very strong character, in striking contrast to the officially sanctioned Neo-Confucianist principles of feminine meekness and obedience to the “good woman, wise mother” (ryōsai kenbo, りょうさいけんぼ; 良妻賢母) ideal taught by the previous military regime.[37][38][39] Sazae-san faces the world with cheerful resilience,[7][40]what Hayao Kawai calls a “woman of endurance.”[41] Sazae-san sold more than 62 million copies over the next half century.[42]

Tezuka and Hasegawa were also both stylistic innovators. In Tezuka’s “cinematographic” technique, the panels are like a motion picture that reveals details of action bordering on slow motion as well as rapid zooms from distance to close-up shots.[6] This kind of visual dynamism was widely adopted by later manga artists.[6] Hasegawa's focus on daily life and on women's experience also came to characterize later shojo manga.[7][40][43]

Between 1950 and 1969, increasingly large audiences for manga emerged in Japan with the solidification of its two main marketing genres, shonen manga aimed at boys and shōjo manga aimed at girls.[6][44] Up to 1969, shōjo manga was drawn primarily by adult men for young female readers.(Schodt 1986 p. 88)[6][45]

Two very popular and influential male-authored manga for girls from this period were Osamu Tezuka’s 1953-1956 Ribon no Kishi (“Princess Knight” or “Knight in Ribbons”) and Matsuteru Yokoyama’s 1966 Mahōtsukai Sarii (“Little Witch Sally”).(Schodt 1986 p. 96)[6]

Ribon no Kishi dealt with the adventures of Princess Sapphire of a fantasy kingdom who had been born with male and female souls, and whose sword-swinging battles and romances blurred the boundaries of otherwise rigid gender roles.[6] Sarii, the pre-teen princess heroine of Mahōtsukai Sarii,[46] came from her home in the magical lands to live on earth, go to school, and perform a variety of magical good deeds for her friends and schoolmates.[47] Yokoyama's Mahōtsukai Sarii was influenced by the American TV sitcom Bewitched,[48] but unlike Samantha, the main character of Bewitched, a married woman with her own daughter, Sarii is a pre-teenager who faces the problems of growing up and mastering the responsibilities of forthcoming adulthood. Mahōtsukai Sarii helped create the now very popular mahō shōjo or “magical girl” subgenre of later manga.[47] Both series were and still are very popular.[6][47]

[edit] Shōjo Manga

In 1969 a group of women mangaka later called “The Magnificent 24s” made their shōjo manga debut (the term comes from the Japanese name for 1949, when many of these artists were born(Lent p. 177)[1]).[7] The group included Hagio Moto, Riyoko Ikeda, Yumiko Oshima, Keiko Takemiya, and Riyoko Yamagishi[7] and they marked the first major entry of women artists into manga.[6][7] Thereafter, shōjo manga would be drawn primarily by women artists for an audience of girls and young women.[6][44][45]

In 1971, Ikeda began her immensely popular shōjo manga Beresaiyu no Bara (“The Rose of Versailles”), a story of Oscar François de Jarjayes, a cross-dressing woman who was a Captain in Marie Antoinette’s Palace Guards in pre-Revolutionary France.[6][7][49] In the end, Oscar dies as a revolutionary leading a charge of her troops against the Bastille. Likewise, Hagio Moto’s work challenged Neo-Confucianist limits on women’s roles and activities [37][38][39] as in her 1975 They Were Eleven, a shōjo science fiction story about a young woman cadet in a future space academy.[50] These women artists also created considerable stylistic innovations. In its focus on the heroine’s inner experiences and feelings, shōjo manga are “picture poems”[6] with delicate and complex designs that often eliminate panel borders completely to create prolonged, non-narrative extensions of time.[6][7][44][45]

All of these innovations – strong and independent female characters, intense emotionality, and complex design – remain characteristic of shōjo manga up to the present day.[43][49]


[edit] Shōjo Manga and Ladies' Comics from 1975 to Today

In the following decades (1975-present), shōjo manga continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously evolving different but overlapping subgenres.[51] Major subgenres have included romance, superheroines, and redisu / josei 女性 じょせい, whose boundaries are sometimes indistinguishable from each other and from shonen manga.[7][8]

In modern shōjo manga romance, love is a major theme set into emotionally intense narratives of self-realization.[52] Japanese manga/anime critic Eri Izawa defines romance as symbolizing “the emotional, the grand, the epic; the taste of heroism, fantastic adventure, and the melancholy; passionate love, personal struggle, and eternal longing” set into imaginative, individualistic, and passionate narrative frameworks.[53]

These romances are sometimes long narratives that can deal with distinguishing between false and true love, coping with sexual intercourse, and growing up in a complex world, themes inherited by subsequent animated versions of the story.(Schodt 1996 p. 14)[8][44][52] These “coming of age” or bildungsroman themes occur in both shōjo and shonen manga.[54][55]

In the bildungsroman, the protagonist must deal with adversity and conflict,[55] and examples in shōjo manga of romantic conflict are common. They include Miwa Ueda’s Peach Girl,[56][57] Fuyumi Soryo’s Mars,[58] and, for mature readers, Moyoco Anno’s Happy Mania,[45][59] Yayoi Ogawa’s Tramps Like Us,[60] and Ai Yazawa’s Nana.[61][62] In another shōjo manga bildungsroman narrative device, the young heroine is transported to an alien place or time where she meets strangers and must survive on her own (including Hagio Moto's They Were Eleven,[63] Kyoko Hikawa’s From Far Away,[64] Yû Watase’s Fushigi Yûgi: The Mysterious Play,[65] and Chiho Saito’s The World Exists For Me[66]).

Yet another such device involves meeting unusual or strange people and beings, for example, Natsuki Takaya’s Fruits Basket[67] – one of the most popular shōjo manga in America[68] – whose orphaned heroine Tohru must survive living in the woods in a house filled with people who can transform into the animals of the Chinese zodiac. In Harako Iida’s Crescent Moon, heroine Mahiru meets a group of supernatural beings, finally to discover that she herself too has a supernatural ancestry when she and a young tengu demon fall in love.[69]

With the superheroines, shōjo manga continued to break away from neo-Confucianist norms of female meekness and obedience.[8][44][41] Naoko Takeuchi’s Sailor Moon (Bishōjo Senshi Seiramun: "Pretty Girl Soldier Sailor Moon") is a sustained, 18-volume narrative about a group of young heroines simultaneously heroic and introspective, active and emotional, dutiful and ambitious[70][71]. The combination proved extremely successful, and Sailor Moon became internationally popular in both manga and anime formats.(Schodt 1996 p. 92)[8][70] Another example is CLAMP’s Magic Knight Rayearth, whose three young heroines, Hikaru, Umi, and Fuu, are magically transported to the world of Cephiro to become armed magical warriors in the service of saving Cephiro from internal and external enemies.[72][73]

The superheroine subgenre also extensively developed the notion of teams (sentai) of girls working together(Poltras p. 71)[74], like the Sailor Scouts in Sailor Moon, the Magic Knights in Magic Knight Rayearth, and the Mew Mew girls from Mia Ikumi's Tokyo Mew Mew.[75] By today, the superheroine narrative template has been widely used (e.g., Kanan's Galaxy Angel[76] and Nao Yazawa's Wedding Peach[77]) and parodied (Rune by Tamayo Akiyama[78]).

In the mid-1980s and thereafter, as girls who had read shōjo manga as teenagers matured and entered the job market, shōjo manga elaborated subgenres directed at women in their 20s and 30s.[51] This “Ladies Comic” subgenre (in Japanese, redisu レディース, redikomi レヂィーコミ, and josei) has dealt with themes of young adulthood: jobs, the emotions and problems of sexual intercourse, and friendships or love among women.[51][79][80][81][82]

Redisu manga retains many of the narrative stylistics of shōjo manga but has been drawn by and written for adult women.(Schodt 1996 p. 124-129)[8] Redisu manga has been often, but not always, sexually explicit, but sexuality has characteristically been set into complex narratives of pleasure and erotic arousal combined with emotional risk.[8][79][80] Examples include Ramiya Ryo's Luminous Girls,[83] Masako Watanabe's Kinpeibai,[44] and the work of Shungicu Uchida.[8] Another subgenre of shōjo/redisu manga deals with emotional and sexual relationships among women (akogare and yuri),[84] in work by Erica Sakurazawa,[85] Ebine Yamaji,[86] and Chiho Saito.[87] Other subgenres of shōjo/redisu manga have also developed, e.g., fashion (oshare) manga, like Ai Yazawa’s Paradise Kiss[88][89] and horror/vampire/gothic manga, like Matsuri Hino‘s Vampire Knight,[90] Kaori Yuki's Cain Saga,[91] and Peach-Pit‘s Rozen Maiden,[92][93] which interact with street fashions, costume play ("cosplay"), J-Pop music, and goth subcultures in complex ways.[94][95][96]

By the start of the 21st century, manga for women and girls thus represented a broad spectrum of material for pre- and early teenagers to material for adult women.

[edit] LINKS

Link 1: <http://www.google.com/search?client=opera&rls=en&q=500+billion+yen+in+dollars&sourceid=opera&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8>.

Link 2: <http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/lexicon.php?id=67>.

Link 3. <http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-6318937/Frederic-Boilet-and-the-Nouvelle.html>.

Link 4. <http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/lexicon.php?id=99>.

[edit] References

Cha, Kai-Ming 2007 Viz Media and Manga in the U.S. <http://www.publishersweekly.com/article/CA6430330.html?nid=2789>.

Compress 2007 2006 Japanese Manga Market Drops Below 500 Billion Yen.< http://comipress.com/news/2007/03/10/1622>.

Gravett, Paul 2004 Manga: Sixty Years of Japanese Comics. New York: Harper Design.

Ito, Kinko 2005 A history of manga in the context of Japanese culture and society. J. Popular Culture, 38(3):456-475.

Kern, Adam 2006 Manga from the Floating World: Comicbook Culture and the Kibyoshi of Edo Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN-10: 0674022661; ISBN-13: 978-0674022669.

Kinsella, Sharon 2000 Adult Manga: Culture and Power in Contemporary Japanese Society. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.

Kishi Torajiro 1998 Colorful: Karafuru. Tokyo: Shueisha Young Jump. ISBN 4-08-782556-6.

Patten, Fred 2004 Watching Anime, Reading Manga: 25 Years of Essays and Reviews. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge.

Schodt, Frederik L. 1986 Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics. Tokyo: Kodansha.

Schodt, Frederik L. 1996 Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press.

Wong, Wendy Siuyi 2002 Hong Kong Comics: A History of Manhua. New York: Princeton Architectural Press.

Wong, Wendy Siuyi 2006 Globalizing manga: From Japan to Hong Kong and beyond. Mechademia: An Academic Form for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:23-45.

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b Lent, John A. (2001). Illustrating Asia: Comics, Humor Magazines, and Picture Books. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0824824716. 
  2. ^ Characteristics of Japanese Manga. dnp.co.jp. Retrieved on 2007-09-18.
  3. ^ a b c d e Kinsella, Sharon (2000). Adult Manga: Culture and Power in Contemporary Japanese Society. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0824823184. 
  4. ^ Kern, Adam (2006). Manga from the Floating World: Comicbook Culture and the Kibyoshi of Edo Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674022669. 
  5. ^ Ito, Kinko (2005). "A history of manga in the context of Japanese culture and society". The Journal of Popular Culture 38 (3): 456-475. 
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Schodt, Frederik L. (1986). Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics. Tokyo: Kodansha. ISBN 978-0870117527. 
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Gravett, Paul (2004). Manga: Sixty Years of Japanese Comics. New York: Harper Design. ISBN 978-1856693912. 
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i Schodt, Frederik L. (1996). Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1880656235. 
  9. ^ 2006 Japanese Manga Market Drops Below 500 Billion Yen. ComiPress (2007-03-10). Retrieved on 2007-09-14.
  10. ^ 500 billion yen in dollars. Google (2007-09-14). Retrieved on 2007-09-14.
  11. ^ a b Wong, Wendy Siuyi (2006). "Globalizing manga: From Japan to Hong Kong and beyond". Mechademia: An Academic Form for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts 1: 23-45. 
  12. ^ Patten, Fred (2004). Watching Anime, Reading Manga: 25 Years of Essays and Reviews. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge. ISBN 978-1880656921. 
  13. ^ Cha, Kai-Ming (4/3/2007). Viz Media and Manga in the U.S. Publishers Weekly. Retrieved on 2007-09-14.
  14. ^ Katzenstein, Peter J.; Takashi Shiraishi (1997). Network Power: Japan in Asia. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801483738. 
  15. ^ Kishi, Torajiro (1998). Colorful. Tokyo: Shueisha Publishing Co., Ltd.. ISBN 4-08-782556-6. 
  16. ^ Kittelson, Mary Lynn (1998). The Soul of Popular Culture: Looking at Contemporary Heroes, Myths, and Monsters. Chicago, Illinois: Open Court. ISBN 978-0812693638. 
  17. ^ Johnston-O'Neill, Tom (08/03/2007). Finding the International in Comic Con International. The San Diego Participant Observer. Retrieved on 2007-09-15.
  18. ^ Brienza, Casey (July 13, 2007). Videogame Visions Udon’s ‘Street Fighter’ titles join game-based manga scene. Wizard. Retrieved on 2007-09-15.
  19. ^ Hisao Tamaki (w,p,i). "George Lucas" Star Wars: A New Hope Manga  #1 (July 15, 1998)  Dark Horse Comics.
  20. ^ Manhwa: 만화. Anime News Network. Retrieved on 2007-09-14.
  21. ^ Wong, Wendy Siuyi (2002). Hong Kong Comics: A History of Manhua. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1568982694. 
  22. ^ Vollmar, Rob (March 2007). "Frederic Boilet and the Nouvelle Manga revolution". World Literature Today. 
  23. ^ World Manga. Anime News Network. Retrieved on 2007-09-14.
  24. ^ a b c Murakami, Takashi (2005). Little Boy: the Arts of Japan’s Exploding Subculture. New York: Japan Society. ISBN 0-913304-57-3. 
  25. ^ a b c Tatsumi, Takayumi (2006). Full Metal Apache: Transactions between Cyberpunk Japan and Avant-Pop America. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-3774-6. 
  26. ^ Phantom Goes Manga. StarWars.com (January 05, 2000). Retrieved on 2007-09-18.
  27. ^ Condry, Ian (2006). Hip-Hop Japan: Rap and the Path of Cultural Globalization. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-3892-0. 
  28. ^ a b Ito, Kinko (2004). ""Growing up Japanese reading manga"". International Journal of Comic Art 6: 392-401. 
  29. ^ a b c Kern, Adam L. (2007). ""Symposium: Kibyoshi: The World’s First Comicbook?"". International Journal of Comic Art 9: 1-486. 
  30. ^ Eisner, Will (1985). Comics & Sequential Art. Tamarac, FL: Poorhouse Press. ISBN 0-9614728-0-2. 
  31. ^ Torrance, Richard (Winter 2005). "Richard 2005 Literacy and literature in Osaka, 1890-1940". Journal of Japanese Studies 31 (1): 27-60. 
  32. ^ Bouquillard, Jocelyn; Christophe Marquet (2007). Hokusai: First Manga Master. New York: Abrams. ISBN 978-0810993419. 
  33. ^ Inoue, Charles Shirō 1996 "Pictocentrism -- China as a source of Japanese modernity". In: Sumie Jones (editor) Imaging/Reading Eros. Bloomington, IN: East Asian Studies Center, Indiana University. pages 148-152.
  34. ^ This section draws primarily on the work of Frederik Schodt (1986, 1996, 2007) and of Paul Gravett (2004). Time-lines for manga history are available in Mechademia, Gravett, and in articles by Go Tchiei 1998a.
  35. ^ a b Staff Kodansha America. Japan: Profile of a Nation, Revised Edition. Tokyo: Kodansha International (JPN). ISBN 978-4770023841. 
  36. ^ a b c d e Schodt, Frederik L. (2007). The Astro Boy Essays: Osamu Tezuka, Mighty Atom, and the Manga/Anime Revolution. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1933330549. 
  37. ^ a b Uno, Kathleen S. 1993. "The death of 'Good Wife, Wise Mother'." In: Andrew Gordon (editor) Postwar Japan as History. Berkeley, CA: University of California. pp. 293-322. ISBN 0520074750.
  38. ^ a b Ohinata, Masami 1995 "The mystique of motherhood: A key to understanding social change and family problems in Japan." In: Kumiko Fujimura-Fanselow and Atsuko Kameda (editors) Japanese Women: New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future. New York: The Feminist Press at The City University of New York. pp. 199-211. ISBN 978-1558610941.
  39. ^ a b Yoshizumi, Kyoko 1995 "Marriage and family: Past and present." In: Kumiko Fujimura-Fanselow and Atsuko Kameda (editors) Japanese Women: New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future. New York: The Feminist Press at The City University of New York. pp. 183-197. ISBN 978-1558610941.
  40. ^ a b Lee, William (2000). "From Sazae-san to Crayon Shin-Chan." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop!: Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0765605610.
  41. ^ a b Kawai, Hayao (1996). The Japanese Psyche: Major Motifs in the Fairy Tales of Japan. Woodstock, CT: Spring Publications. ISBN 978-0882143682. 
  42. ^ Hasegawa, Machiko; Frederik L. Schodt (1997). "Forward", The Wonderful World of Sazae-San. Tokyo: Kodansha International (JPN). ISBN 978-4770020758. 
  43. ^ a b Sanchez, Frank (1997-2003). "Hist 102: History of Manga." http://www.animeinfo.org/animeu/hist102.html. AnimeInfo. Retrieved on 2007-09-11.
  44. ^ a b c d e f Toku, Masami (2005). "Shojo Manga: Girl Power!". Chico Statements (Spring 2006). 
  45. ^ a b c d Thorn, Matt (July-September 2001). "Shôjo Manga—Something for the Girls". The Japan Quarterly 48 (3). 
  46. ^ Sarii is the Japanese spelling and pronunciation of the English-language name "Sally." The word mahōtsukai literally means "magic operator," someone who can use and control magic. It does not mean "witch" or "magical girl" (which is mahō shōjo in Japanese), because tsukai is not a gendered word in Japanese. This use of an English-language name with a Japanese descriptive word is an example of transnationalism in Tatsumi's sense.
  47. ^ a b c Yoshida, Kaori (2002). "Evolution of Female Heroes: Carnival Mode of Gender Representation in Anime". . Western Washington University Retrieved on 2007-09-22.
  48. ^ Johnson, Melissa (June 27, 2006). Bewitched by Magical Girls. FPS Magazine. Retrieved on 2007-09-22.
  49. ^ a b Tchiei, Go (1998). Shojo Manga: A Unique Genre. Retrieved on 2007-09-22.
  50. ^ Hagio Moto 1975/1996 "They Were Eleven." In: Matt Thorn (editor) Four Shojo Stories. San Francisco: Viz. ISBN 1569310556. Original story published 1975; US edition 1996.
  51. ^ a b c Ōgi, Fusami 2004. "Female subjectivity and shoujo (girls) manga (Japanese comics): Shoujo in Ladies’ Comics and Young Ladies’ Comics." Journal of Popular Culture, 36(4):780-803.
  52. ^ a b Drazen, Patrick 2003. Anime Explosion!: the What? Why? & Wow! of Japanese Animation. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge.
  53. ^ Izawa, Eri 2000 ."The romantic, passionate Japanese in anime: A look at the hidden Japanese soul." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 138-153. ISBN 978-0765605610. . Accessed September 23, 2007.
  54. ^ "The transformation into a superhero is in fact an allegory of becoming an adult." From Graillat, Ludovic 2006-2007 "America vs. Japan: the Influence of American Comics on Manga." Refractory: A Journal of Entertainment Media, Volume 10. Accessed September 23, 2007. Literally, bildungs = education and roman = novel in German, hence a novel about the education of the protagonist in "the ways of the world."
  55. ^ a b Moretti, Franco 1987. The Way of the World: The Bildungsroman in European Culture." London: Verso. ISBN 1859842984.
  56. ^ Beveridge, Chris (05/14/2007). Peach Girl Vol. #1 (also w/box) (of 6). Anime on DVD. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  57. ^ Peach Girl Volume 1. Tokyo Pop. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  58. ^ MARS Volume 1. Tokyo Pop. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  59. ^ Happy Mania Volume 1. Tokyo Pop. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  60. ^ Tramps Like Us (manga). Anime News Network. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  61. ^ Aoki, Deb. Nana by Ai Yazawa - Series Profile and Story Summary. About.com. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  62. ^ Bertschy, Zac (Dec 26 2005). NANA G.novel 1. Anime News Network. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  63. ^ Randall, Bill. Three By Moto Hagio. The Comics Journal. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  64. ^ King, Patrick. From Far Away Vol. 2. Anime Fringe. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  65. ^ Fushigi Yugi (manga). Anime News Network. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  66. ^ The World Exists for Me Volume 2. Tokyo Pop. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  67. ^ Fruits Basket Volume 1. Tokyo Pop. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  68. ^ "Top 50 Manga Properties for Spring 2007: Fruits Basket." ICv2 Guide to Manga, Number 45, pp. 6, 8.
  69. ^ Crescent Moon Volume 1. Tokyo Pop. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  70. ^ a b Allison, Anne 2000. "Sailor Moon: Japanese superheroes for global girls." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 259-278. ISBN 978-0765605610.
  71. ^ Grigsby, Mary 1999 "The social production of gender as reflected in two Japanese culture industry products: Sailormoon and Crayon Shinchan." In: John A. Lent, editor Themes and Issues in Asian Cartooning: Cute, Cheap, Mad, and Sexy. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. pp. 183-210. ISBN 0879727802.
  72. ^ Magic Knight Rayearth (manga). Anime News Network. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  73. ^ Magic Knight Rayearth I Volume 1. Tokyo Pop. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  74. ^ Poitras, Gilles 2001. Anime Essentials: Everything a Fan Needs to Know. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge. ISBN 1880656531.
  75. ^ Tokyo Mew Mew Volume 1. Tokypop. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  76. ^ Galaxy Angel. Broccoli Books. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  77. ^ Wedding Peach. Viz Media. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  78. ^ Cooper, Liann (Nov 20 2004). RIGHT TURN ONLY!! Sugar Rush. Anime News Network. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  79. ^ a b Ito, Kinko 2002. "The world of Japanese 'Ladies Comics': From romantic fantasy to lustful perversion." Journal of Popular Culture, 36(1):68-85.
  80. ^ a b Ito, Kinko 2003. "Japanese Ladies’ Comics as agents of socialization: The lessons they teach." International Journal of Comic Art, 5(2):425-436.
  81. ^ Jones, Gretchen 2002. "'Ladies’ Comics': Japan’s not-so-underground market in pornography for women." U.S.-Japan Women’s Journal (English Supplement), Number 22, pp. 3-31.
  82. ^ Shamoon, Deborah 2004. "Office slut and rebel flowers: The pleasures of Japanese pornographic comics for women." In: Linda Williams (editor) Porn Studies. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. pp. 77-103.
  83. ^ Ramiya Ryo (no date) "Luminous Girls." Tokyo: France Shoin Comic House. ISBN 4829682019.
  84. ^ Bando, Kishiji (no date) "Shoujo Yuri Manga Guide." Accessed September 23, 2007.
  85. ^ Font, Dillon. Erica Sakurazawa's Nothing But Loving You. Anime Fringe. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  86. ^ Fan translations of Ebine Yamaji's yuri mangas. The Gay Comics List. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  87. ^ Perper, Timothy & Martha Cornog 2006. "In the Sound of the Bells: Freedom and Revolution in Revolutionary Girl Utena." Mechademia, An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:183-186.
  88. ^ Masanao, Amano 2004. Manga Design. Koln, Germany: Taschen GMBH. pp. 526-529. ISBN 3822825913.
  89. ^ Paradise Kiss Volume 1. Tokyopop. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  90. ^ Vampire Knight by Matsuri Hino. Shojo Beat. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  91. ^ Kaori Yuki. Shojo Beat. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  92. ^ Rozen Maiden Volume 1. Tokyopop. Retrieved on 2007-09-26.
  93. ^ Peach-Pit is the nom de plume of Banri Sendou and Shibuko Ebara. "A couple of DearS: An interview with Peach-Pit." TokyoPop Manga Magazine. Fall, 2005. pp. 42-43.
  94. ^ Shoichi Aoki 2001 Fruits. New York: Phaidon Press. ISBN 0714840831.
  95. ^ Winge, Theresa 2006. "Costuming the imagination: Origins of anime and manga cosplay." Mechademia: An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:65-76.
  96. ^ Macias, Patrick, Evers, Izumi, and Nonaka, Kazumi (illustrator). 2004.Japanese Schoolgirl Inferno: Tokyo Teen Fashion Subculture Handbook. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books. ISBN 9780811856904.