Supermarine Spitfire operational history

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Main article: Supermarine Spitfire

Because the Supermarine Spitfire was the only British fighter to be manufactured before, during and after World War 2 it had a long service life, not only with the RAF but with several other nations. Starting life designed as a short range interceptor for use over Britain, the RAF and other users were able to take advantage of some of the aircraft's design features to enable the aircraft to be used in roles as diverse as long-range photo-reconnaissance and desert and tropical based fighter-bomber. The Spitfire was to also have a short period of service in the night-fighter role.

As a fighter there were many important lessons learned about the Spitfire during the battles over Dunkirk and during the Battle of Britain which led to important improvements in the aircraft's battle-worthiness and in the tactics used by the RAF.

More painful lessons were learned once the Spitfire started serving over Northern France and in the Mediterranean and over Australia's Northern Territory. Photo-reconnaissance Spitfires kept constant watch over Germany's Battleships, Battle cruisers and Cruisers and played an important role in uncovering Germany's radar and secret weapons. Low flying fighter-reconnaissance Spitfires took photos of German armoured vehicles in the Arnhem area before the ill-fated Operation Market Garden.

This article can be considered to be nothing more than an overview of the Spitfire's long and distinguished operational history.

Contents 1 Early RAF service 2 Spitfire night fighter 3 Battle of Britain 4 European offensive 1941–43 4.1 The Focke-Wulf Challange 4.2 Escorting the United States Army Air Forces 5 Photo Reconnaissance 6 Mediterranean service 7 Spitfires of the USSR 8 Asia and the Pacific 9 D-day to VE Day 10 Postwar service 11 See also 12 References 12.1 Notes 12.2 Bibliography 12.3 Further reading 13 External links

[edit] Early RAF service

The first Spitfire I to enter service with the RAF arrived at 19 Squadron, Duxford, on 4 August 1938, and over the next few weeks aircraft were delivered at the rate of one a week to both 19 and 66 Squadrons (also based at Duxford). The next to be equipped with Spitfires was 41 Squadron at Catterick, followed by a succession of squadrons stationed at Hornchurch in Essex. The public's first sight of the Spitfire in RAF colours was on Empire Air Day, 20 May 1939 during a display at Duxford in which the pilot "belly-landed" his aircraft, having forgotten to lower his undercarriage. He was consequently fined £5 by the Air Ministry. By the outbreak of the Second World War, there were 306 Spitfires in service with the RAF, with another 71 in reserve and a further 2,000 on order. A total of 36 had been written off in accidents.^[1]

On 6 September 1939 in an incident known as the Battle of Barking Creek, Spitfires were first blooded on a pair of unfortunate Hawker Hurricanes from 56 Squadron. The Hurricanes were shot down by Spitfires of 74 Squadron in a friendly fire incident over the Medway, leading to the death of P/O Montague Leslie Hulton-Harrop, the first British pilot fatality of the Second World War.

On 16 October 1939 the Spitfire first saw action when three aircraft each from 602 and 603 Squadrons intercepted nine Junkers Ju 88s of KG30 attempting to attack Royal Navy ships in the Firth of Forth. Two Ju 88s were shot down, and another heavily damaged.

On 23 May 1940 Spitfire Is of 54 Squadron were the first to shoot down Bf 109s: the first of these is usually credited to either Flying Officer Alan Deere of New Zealand, who shot down two, or Flg. Off. "Johnny" Allen who shot down one.

While the Spitfires of RAF Fighter Command continued to be based in Britain, at the insistence of Air Vice Marshal Hugh Dowding, from late 1939 there were early photo reconnaissance Spitfires of "No 2 Camouflage Unit"^[2] operating from Seclin in France, gathering valuable photo-intelligence of German defences and cities. Right throughout the Second World War, photo-reconnaissance Spitfires would play a vital part in keeping up a constant flow of photographic intelligence, in a role far removed from that of short-range interceptor fighter.

[edit] Spitfire night fighter

Attempts were also made to use the Spitfire as a nightfighter: the documentation to specification F.10/35, which was framed around the Spitfire, was headed "Requirements for Single-engine Day and Night Fighter" and stipulated that the aircraft be equipped with "(c) Night flying equipment".^[3]

As a result Spitfire Is, IIs, Vas and Vbs were all fitted with a powerful, retractable landing light in each wing. Dorsal (just behind the aerial mast) and ventral (orange, under the wing centre section) identification lights could be operated in Morse code by the pilot using a small morse-key in the cockpit. In an attempt to shield the pilot's eyes from the bright exhaust flames many Spitfires were also fitted with rectangular light-alloy "blinkers" secured to light alloy brackets fixed to the sides of the fuel tank housing.

The most successful night interceptions took place on the night of 18/19 June:

• Flt. Lt. "Sailor" Malan of 74 Squadron shot down two Heinkel He 111s of Kampfgeshwader 4 (roughly "Bomber Wing 4" abbreviated KG 4), while Flg. Off.s John Petre and George Ball of 19 Squadron each shot down one He 111 of KG 4.

And on the night of 26/27 June:

• Pilot Officers R Smith and R Marples of 616 Squadron shot down another He 111 of KG 4; Flt. Lt. H MacDonald of 603 Squadron shot down an He 111 of KG 26 and another He 111 of KG 26 was shot down, possibly with the help of A.A guns by Flg. Off.s A Johnstone of 602 Squadron and J Haig of 603 Squadron.^[4]

Although Spitfires continued to be used on night patrols the Luftwaffe bombers learned to fly well above the altitudes at which they could be effectively picked up by searchlights and the Spitfires were never to achieve the same success.^[4]

[edit] Battle of Britain

Main article: Battle of Britain

R.J. Mitchell and his Spitfire are often credited with winning the Battle of Britain. This is a view often propagated within popular culture, such as in the film The First of the Few. However, the maintenance of civilian morale under air attack is vital and, no doubt, the Spitfire and its legend contributed to this.

More importantly the Battle of Britain (which officially started on 10 July 1940 and ended 31 October)^[5] was the first major test of both the Spitfire and of Fighter Command. During the Luftwaffe's onslaught important lessons were learned about the Spitfire's capabilities and of its drawbacks, many of which were to be rectified over the course of its development. Fighter Command, too, learned many lessons which were to be absorbed and later used against the Luftwaffe.

The battle-performance of the Spitfire was to be frequently compared against that of the Hawker Hurricane, which was used in greater numbers during the critical stages of 1940. Although early Spitfires and Hurricanes carried identical armament of eight .303 inch (7.696 mm) machine guns, the placement of the Hurricane's guns was better, yielding a closer pattern of fire. A lower top speed and poorer performance at altitude, however, made the Hurricane more vulnerable against the German fighter escorts. Wherever possible, the RAF tactic during the Battle of Britain was to use the Hurricane squadrons to attack the bombers, holding the Spitfires back to counter the German escort fighters. In total numbers, the Hurricane shot down more Luftwaffe aircraft, both fighters and bombers, than the Spitfire, mainly due to the higher proportion of Hurricanes in the air. Seven of every 10 German aircraft destroyed during the Battle of Britain were shot down by Hurricane pilots. Losses were also higher among the more numerous Hurricanes. Post-war analysis shows that the Spitfire's kill ratio compared to the Hurricane's was marginally better.^[6][5]

The other main RAF fighter, the Boulton Paul Defiant, was a Merlin powered single-engine, two seat turret fighter which carried its armament concentrated in a dorsal turret behind the pilot and no directly forward facing guns. Although it at first had success against the Luftwaffe during the battles over Dunkirk it was designed to attack unescorted bombers and, as such, doomed to failure when pitted against fighters. After the two units, 141 and 264 Squadrons flying the Defiant suffered crippling casualties, on 19 July and 28 August respectively, the Defiant was withdrawn from battle and later became a night-fighter.^{[5] [6]}

The Mark I and Mark II models saw service during the Battle and beyond, into 1941. Both of these used eight .303 Browning machine guns. It was relatively common during the Battle of Britain for German aircraft to return safely to base with surprisingly high numbers of .303 bullet holes, as the Luftwaffe machines received progressively more armour in critical areas and self-sealing fuel tanks became common in German bombers. The use of a smaller number of heavier, larger-calibre guns would have been far more effective, and this was rectified in later versions of the Spitfire. Several Mark Is of 19 Squadron were fitted with two 20 mm Hispano-Suiza cannon in 1940, although frequent stoppages meant the types were replaced by conventionally-armed aircraft in September 1940. Supermarine and Hispano continued work on a reliable cannon installation, with a number of Mk Is armed with two cannon and four .303 m.gs entering operations by late 1940: this version was referred to as the Mk IB, the machine gun-armed Spitfires were retrospectively called the Mk IA.^[7].

Although the Merlin III engine of Spitfire Is had a power rating of 1,030 hp, (768 kW) which is generally quoted in references, supplies of 100 octane fuel from the United States started reaching Britain in March 1940. This meant that an "emergency boost" of +12 inches was available for five minutes, with pilots able to call on 1,305 hp (973 kW) at 9,000 feet (2,743 m). The effect was that the rate of climb especially was increased, enabling numerous lone Spitfires to escape dangerous situations. It also proved useful as an attack feature.^[8]

At the time, the Luftwaffe's only single-engine, single-seat fighter similar in physical dimensions, attributes and performance to the Spitfire was the Messerschmitt Bf 109. Some inherent advantages helped the Spitfires win many dogfights, most notably manoeuvrability: the Spitfire had a higher rate of turn and a smaller turning circle than the Messerschmitt:^[9] there are accounts of 109s being able to out-turn Spitfires, but this was only because the Spitfire pilot probably didn't turn as tightly as possible through fear of his aircraft losing its wings. The Spitfire pilot also had reasonable visibility from the cockpit, with a clear blown canopy compared to the Bf 109's narrow enclosure with a heavily-framed cockpit canopy.^[10][11]

One clear advantage enjoyed by the German Jagdgeschwadern was the use of better tactics. In the late 1930s Fighter Command weren't expecting to be facing single-engine fighters over Britain, only bombers. With this in mind a series of "Fighting Area Tactics" were formulated and rigidly adhered to, involving a series of manoeuvres designed to concentrate a squadron's firepower to bring down bombers: with no apparent prospect of escorting fighters to worry about RAF fighter pilots flew in tight, vee-shaped sections of three. The pilots were forced to concentrate on watching each other, rather than being free to keep a lookout for enemy aircraft. In contrast the Luftwaffe, using its experiences during the Spanish Civil War, devised a loose section of two, based on a leader followed to starboard and to the rear by his wingman, who was trained to stay with his leader at all times. While the leader was free to search for enemy aircraft, and could cover his wingman's blind-spots, his wingman was able to concentrate on searching the airspace in the leader's blind-spots, behind and below. Two of these sections were usually teamed up into a Schwarm, where all of the pilots could watch what was happening around them. Because the 109s were well spread, the Schwarm was hard to spot, unlike the RAF vee formation, and all of the 109s were able to attack and defend, or retreat in pairs, whereas the RAF formations were often split up into individual aircraft which were then extremely vulnerable. The loose Schwarm, because of the reduced risk of collision between aircraft, were also able to climb faster and higher than the tightly grouped RAF fighters, which is one of the reasons why even Spitfire units often found themselves being "bounced" from above.

"Fighting Area Tactics" also stipulated that RAF fighter pilots were to open fire at long-range, 300 to 400 yards (274 to 365 m), and then break off without closing in. The usual practice was to bore-sight their guns on the ground to create a shotgun pattern at this distance. This created a problem with the Spitfire, with its eight Brownings mounted in a 1-2-1 pattern along each wing: because the wings flexed slightly as the guns fired the bullets spread out in a cone-shaped pattern, with the two outermost guns being particularly badly affected by bullet spread. At the 300+ yards recommended by the Fighting Area Tactics this meant a lower concentration of bullets were likely to hit the target. The Hurricane was better in this respect with its closely-mounted weapons which were less affected by wing flexibility. As the Battle progressed many RAF pilots learned to open fire from close-range, 200 yards (183 m) or less, and to have their guns harmonised to fire in a concentrated "spot" pattern. German pilots were trained from the outset in the concept of getting in close before opening fire.

With the Germans able to base their 109s in the Pas de Calais, close to the English Channel the "Fighting Area Tactics" became obsolete. Many of the RAF fighter Squadrons which hadn't been engaged in combat over Dunkirk were slow to adapt to the fact that they would be encountering the potent German fighter over Britain. Some RAF units adopted "weavers", a single aircraft which flew a pattern behind the main squadron, which still flew in vees. The weavers were usually the first to be picked off in a "bounce" by the German fighters: more often than not the rest of the squadron did not even know they were under attack. RAF Squadrons that did not learn from the Luftwaffe and adopt similar tactics suffered heavy casualties during the Battle. Leaders like "Sailor" Malan were instrumental in devising better tactics for the RAF fighters and demonstrating that the Spitfire was a superb fighter. It is no coincidence that some of the most successful RAF pilots were the Polish pilots who had been trained pre-war by their air force to fly in loose formations and open fire from close-range.^[6]

The biggest disadvantage faced by Bf 109 pilots was that without the benefit of long-range drop tanks (which were introduced in very limited numbers in the late stages of the Battle), the 109s had an endurance of just over an hour. Once over Britain the 109 pilots had to keep an eye on a red "low fuel" light on the instrument panel: once this was illuminated they were forced to turn back and head for France. With the prospect of two long over-water flights, and knowing that their range was substantially reduced when escorting bombers or in the event of combat, the Jagdflieger coined the term Kanalkrankheit or "Channel sickness".^[12]

Another regularly encountered German fighter, the Messerschmitt Bf 110, was a larger, two-seat, twin-engined fighter which was designed as a long range "Destroyer" (Zerstörer). Although reasonably fast (Bf 110C about 340 mph [547 km/h]) and possessing a respectable combat radius as well as carrying a heavy armament of two 20 mm MG FF/M cannon and four 7.92 mm MG 17s concentrated in the forward fuselage, along with a single 7.92 mm MG 15 mounted for rear defence in the rear cockpit, the 110 was only slightly less manoeuvrable than the bombers they were meant to escort. Against modern fighters like the Spitfire and Hurricane the Zerstörergruppen (roughly "Destroyer Groups") suffered heavy casualties and, after 18 August fewer of them were encountered over Britain because the rate of attrition was outpacing production.

Of the four types of Luftwaffe bombers, the Dornier Do 17, Heinkel He 111, Junkers Ju 87 and Junkers Ju 88, the Ju 88 was considered to be the most difficult to shoot down. As a bomber it was relatively manoeuvrable and, especially at low altitudes with no bomb load, it was fast enough to ensure that a Spitfire caught in a tail-chase would be hard pressed to catch up.^[6] The He 111 was nearly 100 mph slower than the Spitfire and didn't present much of a challenge to catch, although the heavy armour, self-sealing fuel tanks and progressively uprated defensive armament meant that it was still a challenge to shoot down. The Do 17 was also easy to catch but, with its radial engines with no vulnerable cooling systems and self-sealing fuel tanks, it was capable of taking an amazing amount of punishment. The Ju 87 Stuka dive bomber was badly outclassed in all respects and, after taking some savage beatings, the Sturzkampfgeschwader were withdrawn from the Battle.^[13]

When being attacked by British fighters the standard warning of "Achtung, Indianer!" (Look Out, Red Indians!"^[14]) often became "Achtung! Spitfire", even if the aircraft were Hurricanes.^[15] This was later called the "Spitfire complex."^[16]

[edit] European offensive 1941–43

In early 1941 the new leader of 11 Group of Fighter Command (Air Vice-Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory, who had replaced Keith Park in November 1940) inaugurated a policy of "Leaning towards Europe" in which fighter sweeps and bomber escort missions were mounted over France and other occupied territories, with the express purpose of forcing a response from Luftwaffe fighters. Leigh Mallory was fully supported by the new leader of Fighter Command, Air Chief Marshal Sir William Sholto Douglas who had replaced Sir Hugh Dowding in November 1940.^{[17] [18]} With this change in role the Spitfire, Hurricane and new Westland Whirlwind units found themselves facing the same disadvantages over France as the 109 units had faced over Britain. The limited combat radius of the RAF fighters meant that the Luftwaffe could engage in, or break off combat on their own terms, knowing that they were over friendly territory and with plenty of airfields at which they could land to rearm and refuel. The RAF fighters were the ones who were now having to face the prospect of two long over-water passages, returning in many cases with combat damage.

By late 1940 Luftwaffe fighter units were being re-equipped with the formidable new Bf 109F-1 and 2s, a complete redesign of the 109 series which many Luftwaffe pilots considered to be the best of the many variants of the fighter. It easily outperformed the Spitfire Mk Is and IIs and it closely matched that of the Mk Vs which were just about to enter service. In the hands of pilots like Adolf Galland it was a daunting proposition to be facing this aircraft over France.^[19] Fortuitously for the RAF on 10 July 1941 a 109 F-2 flown by Hauptmann Rolf Pingel of I./JG 26. followed a Short Stirling heavy bomber he had intercepted across the channel. Return fire from the Stirling hit his fighter's cooling system, forcing him to "crash-land" in a field near Dover. The 109 was repaired and tested at RAE Farnborough. The results of these tests helped in the development of tactics to counter the new fighter.^[19]

Compared with the massive bomber raids mounted by the Luftwaffe in 1940 the RAF Bomber Command operations, usually one or at most two squadrons of Bristol Blenheims (later Short Stirlings were also used) which were usually escorted by large, conspicuous "Beehives" of five or more fighter squadrons, were pin-pricks. The intent was to lure in the German fighters rather than any particular attempt at causing damage by bombing^[20]. RAF fighter squadrons were increasingly being organised into "Wings". (two or more squadrons operating from the same airfield and operating as a unit in the air under the command of a Wing Leader). The Luftwaffe could afford to oppose these "Circuses" with relatively small numbers of fighters, which usually inflicted disproportionate casualties on the escorting fighters. The charismatic Douglas Bader, flying a Mk Va, was shot down and captured on 9 August 1941 while leading the Tangmere Wing during a "Circus" raid.^[19]

Another type of operation flown by Fighter Command was the "Rhubarb": a low level ground attack mission by small numbers of fighters, usually under low cloud. Against aircraft flying these missions the 20 mm and 37 mm flak guns were the most successful opponents. Another well known Wing Commander, "Bob" Tuck, was shot down by a multi-barrel, 20 mm Flakvierling 38 position and captured by German troops on 28 January 1942 while flying a "Rhubarb". Many other Spitfires were shot down by German fighters.^[18][21]

By mid-1941, with Operation Barbarossa soon to be under-way the only Luftwaffe fighter units left to guard against the RAF were JG 2^[22] and JG 26^[23] These two units, manned for the most part with experienced and aggressive pilots, were fully capable of mounting a highly successful defence, particularly when they started re-equipping with a formidable new opponent for the Spitfire.

[edit] The Focke-Wulf Challange

The introduction of the Focke-Wulf Fw 190^[24] in late 1941 along the Channel front proved a shock to RAF Fighter Command; the British acquired an intact FW 190A-3 on 23 June 1942 when Oberlt. Armin Faber of JG 2 landed at RAF Pembrey by mistake. In comparison tests the new German fighter proved superior to the then-current Mk Vb in all aspects except turning radius.^[25] The flight performance of an early Mk IX, which was flown against the Focke Wulf in July 1942, was found to be closely comparable. Once again the Mk IX had a superior turning radius although it could be out-dived and out-rolled by the German fighter.^[26] These results contributed to the further development of the Rolls-Royce Merlin 61 series engine into versions optimised for High (70 series) Medium (63) and Low (66) altitude performance: this led to the use of the prefixes H.F, F, and L.F which were later applied to the Mks VII through to IX, depending on which version of the engine was installed; eg: L.F Mk. IX.^[27]

The Spitfire V units continued to take heavy casualties, often inflicting little damage in return, throughout 1941 and well into 1942. Once the Mk IX started arriving in sufficient numbers this trend started to even out, although the 190s in particular continued to be a serious threat. ^[19] Hans "Assi" Hahn scored 53 of his 108 kills against Spitfires and Josef "Pips" Priller scored 68 of his 101 victories against the type, making him the highest scoring "Spitfire killer" in the Luftwaffe.^[28] Most of these victories were against the Mark V.

"Operation Jubilee", the amphibious raid on Dieppe of 19 August 1942, was supported by 48 Spitfire squadrons and would prove to be a turning point in RAF operations over Europe. While Fighter Command claimed to have inflicted heavy casualties on the Luftwaffe the balance sheet showed the reverse; Allied aircraft losses amounted to 106, including 88 Spitfires and 18 bombers, against 46 of all types of Luftwaffe aircraft lost. ^[29] On the plus side this operation saw the successful combat debut of the Spitfire Mk IX and the lessons learned from "Jubilee" would lead to the formation of the 2nd Tactical Air Force (2 TAF). 2 TAF would combine RAF fighter, fighter/bomber and light and medium bomber squadrons into a powerful Army Support organisation which would help lead to the successful outcome of D-Day.^[19]

From late 1942, in an attempt to achieve some degree of parity with the Fw 190, some squadrons still operating the Mark V received specially modified versions that had the wing-tips removed and replaced by short fairings (to improve their rate of roll) and reduced diameter supercharger impeller blades on the Merlin for optimum performance at lower altitudes. These aircraft were designated LF Mark V officially, but were also known by their pilots as "Clipped, Clapped and Cropped Spits," also referring to the fact that many of these Spitfires, thus modified, had seen better days.^[19]

Operating within the RAF were three "Eagle" squadrons; units manned by American pilots who had joined the RAF. Initially equipped with Hurricanes these units converted to Spitfire VBs in 1941 and were disbanded in September 1942 so that their aircrew and aircraft could become part of the fledgling USAAF's Eighth Air Force. These units were the first wave of a massive tide of American fighter aircraft that would later help destroy German air defences over western and cenral Europe.

Although the outlook seemed bleak for the RAF over Europe the situation would slowly improve after the nadir of the Dieppe raid. Luftwaffe fighter pilots were coming under increasing strain with a steady drain of experienced veterans, either as combat casualties or to other theatres of war. The advent of new or improved aircraft types such as the Mk IX Spitfire, Hawker Typhoon and Allison engined Mustangs, took some of the strain off the Spitfire units. There were more fighter squadrons and, with a much needed overhaul of the training units, a steady stream of well trained fighter pilots were strengthening the ranks.

Towards the end of September 1942, the Luftwaffe began launching high level bombing raids against England. Junkers Ju 86 R bombers flying at 40,000 ft were able to bomb England without impediment. To counter the threat, the "High Altitude Flight" was set up at RAF Northolt. This unit used a pair of Rolls-Royce Hucknall Spitfire IXs (converted Mk Vcs), which were stripped of everything not required for the role of high level interception, lightening them by 450 pounds each. On 12 September 1942 BS273,^[30] flown by Flying Officer Emanuel Galitzine successfully intercepted a Ju 86R above Southampton at 41,000 ft. The ensuing battle went up to 43,000 ft and was the highest air battle of the war. However, problems were caused by the freezing air at that altitude and the combat was not decisive: the port cannon suffered a jam, and whenever the pilot fired a burst, the aircraft would slew and fall out of the sky. The bomber escaped safely with just one hit to its port wing, but having proven to be vulnerable to the RAF at high altitudes, the Luftwaffe launched no further high altitude attacks against England.^[31]

[edit] Escorting the United States Army Air Forces

During 1943 February the first of the Rolls-Royce Griffon engine variants the L.F Mk XII entered service, at first with 41 Squadron, soon followed by 91 Squadron. This version had superb performance at low and medium altitudes, although above about 15,000 feet the performance dropped away. In spite of a reluctance on the part of German fighters to be drawn into low-altitude combat the Spitfire XIIs scored several successes against low flying fighter-bomber Fw 190s and Bf 109 Gs attacking targets in and around the south-eastern coastal towns of Britain. These two units, the only ones to be fully equipped with this version, formed the Tangmere Wing on 28 June 1943, led by Wing Cdr. Rhys Thomas. The Wing carried out "Ramrods", escorting B-17 Flying Fortresses, B-25 Mitchells, B-26 Marauders, as well as Typhoons to attack targets in France. During these missions the Wing would often sweep ahead of the main bomber formation, to catch German fighters on the ground, or as they were still climbing to intercept the American bombers. At other times they would provide target support, withdrawal support or escort cover. During these missions several victories were scored against 109s and 190s. This Signal (dated 15 July) from General Anderson commanding VIII Bomber Command of the Eighth Air Force was received by the Tangmere Wing:

"American Bomber Crews are enthusiastically grateful for the splendid fighter cover provided today by the Spitfire Pilots of your Command. Following are typical comments of our crews “As we were leaving the Target area a heavy formation of enemy fighters flew in to attack but almost immediately they were chased off by particularly strong formation of Spitfires. On the way home about mid-Channel one of our ships with half its tail blown off dropped out of formation. A couple of Spits went to the aid of the crippled bomber immediately, circled the ship and brought her home safely”. “The Spit cover was perfect” exclaimed Capt. Carrol D. Briscoa. “I’d like to thank them personally”. May I add my grateful appreciation to that of our crews for the splendid co-operation of your command."^[32]

As the American strategic (B-17 and B-24) and medium (B-26 and A-20) bombing campaigns gathered momentum in mid-1943, the need for fighter escort meant much of Fighter Command's Spitfire force was utilised in this role while the U.S. fighter groups worked up to operational status. The low combat radius of the Spitfire, however, meant the RAF support operations were limited to the North Sea-coastal regions of Belgium and north-western France and across the English Channel to Normandy. As the battle intensified over occupied Europe, USAAF fighters like the P-47, P-38 and, from early 1944, P-51 bore the brunt of bomber protection. Spitfire IX squadrons had to bide their time until the invasion of Europe before fully engaging the Luftwaffe's Jagdwaffe.

[edit] Photo Reconnaissance

Before World War II long range photographic reconnaissance was not considered to be a priority by the RAF, which relied on Bristol Blenheims to carry out photo-reconnaissance as a secondary task. Short range photo-reconnaissance was left to the Army Cooperation Command's Westland Lysanders. Neither aircraft had the speed or altitude performance to avoid enemy fighters, and their light armament meant that expecting them to fight their way through to a target to take photographs was a forlorn hope. Both aircraft types took heavy casualties when faced with modern fighters and A.A fire.

Shortly before the Second World War started Flg. Off. Maurice Longbottom submitted a paper to the Air Ministry in which he proposed that the RAF equip itself with small, unarmed aircraft which, stripped of unnecessary weight and equipped with cameras and extra fuel, could rely on high speed, a fast climb and high altitude to avoid enemy defences. He was thinking primarily about the Spitfire which, he argued, was the ideal aircraft for the role. Although his idea was received with interest, it was shelved because there were not yet enough Spitfires available to allow any to be diverted from equipping Fighter Command.

When early operations proved the vulnerability of the Blenheims and Lysanders, in October 1939 the Air Ministry persuaded Fighter Command to release two Spitfires to the newly formed and highly secret "Heston Flight", which was commanded by an Australian, Wing Leader Sidney Cotton. Cotton had already proved Longbottom's theory to be right by using a modified Lockheed Electra on clandestine photo-reconnaissance missions over Germany. The two Spitfires were "Cottonised" and flew the first RAF high- speed, high-altitude photo-reconnaissance mission of the war on 18 November 1939 when Flt. Lt. "Shorty" Longbottom attempted to photograph Aachen from 33,000 ft (10,000 m). While the fighter versions of the Spitfire stayed in Britain, the first PR missions were flown from bases in France. Experience soon showed that the best camouflage scheme for the high flying Spitfires was overall "PRU Blue", a dark blue/grey. Spitfires engaged in low-altitude "Dicing" missions were often painted a very pale "Camoutint Pink", which was an ideal colour against cloud cover.^[33]

On 13 June 1940, Flg. Off. George Patterson Christie, a Canadian pilot of the newly named Photo Development Unit (PDU) attacked a Fiat BR.20 bomber off the coast of Monaco, and by repeatedly diving at it, forced it to land in the sea. Patterson was awarded the DFC for this feat.^[34]

After the first successes of these aircraft more Mk I Spitfires were converted in different ways to accomplish different types of reconnaissance missions. The PDU was expanded to eventually become 1 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit (1 PRU) in November 1940, operating from RAF Benson as part of RAF Coastal Command. Over the ensuing years photo reconnaissance Spitfires successfully carried out thousands of missions, usually ranging far into enemy territory and keeping up a continuous flow of information. In January 1941 a PRU Spitfire took the first photographs of Germany's Freya radar. On 5 December 1941, at the request of Doctor R V Jones, a PRU Spitfire flown by Flt. Lt Tony Hill was able to photograph from a height of 200 ft, a Würzburg radar, which was sited at Bruneval on the French coast. This led directly to the Bruneval raid in which Würzburg components and radar operators were captured from the Germans.^[35]

Flying PR missions was not an easy occupation. Spitfire pilots often flew missions lasting seven hours or more; the cramped cockpit was uncomfortable, although the introduction of heating and, later in the war, pressurization, relieved some of the discomfort. Early PR Spitfires lacked radios and in later versions which did have radio the pilot was expected to maintain radio silence throughout the flight. The pilots of high flying Spitfires keep constant watch on the rear view mirror to make sure that a contrail would not betray their presence and he also had to keep an eye out for enemy fighters which might have been trying to catch him unawares. Without the help of another crew member a PR Spitfire pilot had to be a good navigator, usually relying on dead reckoning. Once over the target to be photographed a precise course and altitude was set and maintained. Even a small deviation from straight and level flight could mean that the cameras would miss a small target by hundreds of yards.

Low altitude missions (such as the one on the Bruneval Würzburg and Freya radar position^[36]) were usually flown under low cloud, with the pilot constantly on the lookout for enemy fighters and flak positions. At high speed and low altitude there was little time to aim the oblique camera: a tiny black + on the side of the canopy was lined up with a small black stripe painted on the aileron and, as the aircraft flew by the target, the pilot had to estimate when to start taking photographs.

PRU Spitfires also kept a constant watch on the German capital ships in based in Brest harbour throughout 1941 to February 1942, as well as maintaining operations over Norway.

The first Spitfire to be posted in the Mediterranean theatre was that of 1 PRU which arrived on Malta on 22 September 1941. This aircraft was then grounded for three weeks while awaiting replacements for its badly worn tyres. PR Spitfires continued to operate off Malta in ones and twos, usually being re-allocated while en-route to North Africa.^[37]

Other overseas deployments of Spitfires had seen three Mk IVs being sent to Vaenga, in North Russia, to keep on eye on German warships during the operation to get Convoy PQ-18 through to Russia. While there, they carried Soviet markings. These aircraft were later formally handed on to the Soviet Air Force.

In 1942 the advent of the two-stage Merlin 60 series meant that this new engine was also available for the photo reconnaissance aircraft. The first fifteen Spitfires with the new engine were conversions of standard Mk IXs made by the workshops of 1 PRU at Heston. One of the most famous reconnaissance photos of the war, showing the Moehne Dam breached after the "Operation Chastise" attack by 617 Squadron, was taken in the early hours of 18 May 1943 by Flying Officer F D Fray of 542 Squadron flying one of these conversions (called P.R Mk. IX). The version built specifically for reconnaissance, the PR Mk IX, started replacing all of the earlier conversions of Mk Is, IIs and Vs from mid-1943. Another PR version which started operating at about this time was the PR Mk XIII, which replaced the PR Mk VII.

By late 1942 the early PRUs had been expanded and formalised into into several squadrons, and with the formation of the Second Tactical Air Force in 1943, Army Co-operation Command was wound up and many of its units became dedicated PR Squadrons. The photo reconnaissance squadrons, especially those units in theatres outside of Britain, were self contained intelligence units; not only did they have the usual aircraft and maintenance crews but they also incorporated a large photographic section, which processed the exposed film in mobile laboratories almost as soon as the aircraft had landed. There were also photo interpreters, photo printing staff, an intelligence section plus communications staff.^[38]

Rumours that the Germans were developing revolutionary new weapons intended for use against Britain had been circulating since the beginning of the war. In late 1939 Dr Jones had received the "Oslo report" in which there were descriptions of German research into new weapons and equipment.The British also knew that the Germans had set up a large, secret weapons testing area at Peenemunde on the Baltic Sea coast. Although efforts were made to photograph Peenemunde there was no real information forthcoming. Other, more pressing wartime requirements meant that Peenemunde was accorded a low priority.

Peenemunde and the possibility of new weapons came back into the foreground when, in March 1943, British intelligence analysts secretly taped conversations between two German generals that confirmed the Germans were building rockets. On 22 April 1943 the first solid evidence came with a sortie (N/853) by a Spitfire flown by Sqn Ldr Gordon Hughes, which had photographed unusual objects on vehicles at Peenemunde. R V Jones realised that these looked like large rockets. In spite of some controversy throughout the intelligence and scientific establishments this was the first sighting of the Wermacht's V-2 rocket. Subsequent reconnaissance missions revealed more and the decision was taken for Bomber Command to mount a full strength raid on Peenemunde, called "Operation Hydra" which took place on the night of 17/18 August 1943.^[39]

During this same period the Luftwaffe was also working on a secret weapon; this weapon, with its different names (Flakzielgerät or FZG 76, Fi 103) was most famously known as the V1 flying bomb. Through early and mid 1943 decrypted Enigma signals and reports of German construction work, smuggled out of France and Belgium by Resistance operatives, all pointed to an organisation being set up by the Germans to fire "rocket propelled" flying bombs against Britain. When earlier photos from Peenemunde were re-examined a WAAF Flight Officer, Constance Babington-Smith, spotted a very small aircraft mounted on a sloped ramp and rails which were pointed seawards.^[40]Photo reconnaissance sorties, mostly carried out by Spitfires, were ordered to cover the whole of the Pas-de-Calais and, almost immediately, large numbers of sites with similar ramps and small bunkers and buildings (one of which was ski-shaped) were discovered. On the strength of this information a new campaign "Operation Bodyline/ Crossbow" was started, resulting in the destruction of most of the "ski sites". The Germans were forced to abandon the ski-sites and design simplified launch facilities. There were also other problems and the V-1 campaign, intended to start in late 1943, was delayed until the night of 12/13 June 1944.^[41]

[edit] Mediterranean service

The Mk VB was the first Spitfire to see extensive overseas service, the first batch of 15, destined for Malta taking off from on board the HMS Eagle on 7 March 1942. To provide them with enough fuel to get safely to Malta each Spitfire carried a 90 Gallon "slipper" drop tank under the fuselage. In the months that followed, some 275 Mk VB and VC Spitfires were delivered to the beleaguered island, with the Americans generously providing help by allowing the USS Wasp to be used to fly two lots of Spitfires in on 20 April ("Operation Calender" 47 Spitfires and pilots of 601 and 603 Squadrons) and 9 May 1942 ("Operation Bowery" 50 from Wasp plus 14 from Eagle, 60 landed on Malta). In late October through to early November a total of 12 Spitfire VCs, equipped with a single huge 170 gallon drop tank, flew direct from Gibraltar, a distance of 1,000 miles.^[37]

All of these Spitfires were involved in combating and finally blunting the constant air attacks being made on the Island by the Luftwaffe and the Regia Aeronautica. The most successful Spitfire pilot was the Canadian Plt. Off. George Beurling of 249 Squadron who was credited with shooting down 26⅓ German and Italian aircraft between June and late October 1942.^[42] The first Spitfire to be modified to carry underwing bombs was a Malta based Mk Vc, EP201 X-V of 229 Squadron, which was adapted to carry one 250 lb bomb under each wing in September 1942.^[43]

To counter the prevalent dusty conditions, the Spitfires were fitted with a large Vokes air filter under the nose, which lowered the performance of the aircraft through increased drag. The Vb and Vc Trop (fitted with large Vokes anti-sand air filters) would also equip units of the Desert Air Force during the North African campaign by August 1942.

Here, the Mk VCs were used as tactical fighter-bombers in addition to their interception role by being equipped with a maximum clearance load of 500 lb of bombs. Mark VBs equipped the 4th, 31st, and 52nd Fighter Groups of the USAAF in the summer of 1942, and the latter two groups continued flying them until succeeded by Spitfire VIIIs in mid-1943. By this time, Spitfire Mk VCs with stronger wings and extra ammunition began to carry four 20 mm cannon. Many Mk Vs also had the new, smaller and much more efficient "Aboukir" filter instead of the ram air effect nullifying Vokes filter. The new filter was named as such due to its creation in Aboukir, Egypt by RAF mechanics.

The Spitfire V and, later, much-improved, longer-ranged Mark VIIIs also soon became available in the North African Theatre and, henceforth, featured heavily with the RAF, South African Air Force and USAAF during the campaigns in Sicily and Italy.

In the Mediterranean Theatre and in Italy, the Mk VIII fought with the United States Army Air Force. The 31st and 52nd Fighter Groups operated the fighter for some time until, in March 1944, they had their aircraft replaced by the P-51B/C Mustang, a change which didn't thrill most of the pilots according to many 31st FG members. However, the American fighter was adopted because of its long-range escort capability. Over 300 kills were claimed by the two fighter groups while flying Spitfires.^[44]

After the fall of Mussolini, and the 9 September 1943 Armistice, the Italian Co-Belligerent Air Force (ICAF) was equipped with surplus Spitfire Mk Vs with the first ground-attack mission flown by 20 imo Gruppo, 51 imo Stormo on 23 October 1944 over Albania. By 31 December 1944 there were 17 Mk V Spitfires on charge (a total of 40 MK Vs were eventually acquired). Two Italian Spitfires flew the last mission of the European conflict on 5 May 1945.^[45]

[edit] Spitfires of the USSR

Up until the early 1980s little was known in the west about the use of the Spitfire by the Soviet Air Force. An account based on the memoirs of a fighter pilot, Senior Lieutenant Anatoli Ivanov, a member of the 57th Guards Fighter Regiment (originally the 36th Fighter Aviation Regiment, part of the Voyenno-Vozdushnyye Sily or VVS) which was published by Dr Alfred Price in his book The Spitfire Story,^[46] may well be the first time that anything on the subject appeared in print in the west. Since then more information has slowly come to light, although there are still some large gaps.^[47]

In February 1943 the first Spitfires started being received into Soviet service. These were Mk VBs, most of which had already seen extensive service with the RAF. As far as can be ascertained the total numbers of Spitfire which were delivered are as follows:

• VB: = 143
• P.R IV: = 9 (number not confirmed)
• LF IX: = 1183
• HF XI: = 2
• LF XVI: = 9^[48]

[edit] Asia and the Pacific

The Royal Australian Air Force, the Royal Indian Air Force and the RAF also used Spitfires against Japanese forces in the Pacific theatre. The first Spitfires in the Far East were two photo-reconnaissance (PR IV) aircraft which operated from airfields in India from October 1942.

Japanese air raids on Northern Australia hastened the formation in late 1942 of 1 Wing RAAF (54 Squadron, 452(RAAF) and 457(RAAF) squadrons) under the command of Group Captain Clive Caldwell, flying the Spitfire VC. The wing arrived at Darwin in February 1943, and saw constant action until September. The Mk VC versions received by the RAAF proved unreliable and – initially at least – had a relatively high loss rate. This was due to several factors, including pilot inexperience, engine over-speed due to the loss of oil from the propeller speed reduction unit (a problem resolved by the use of a heavier grade of oil),^[49] and the practice of draining glycol coolant before shipment, resulting in internal corrosion.

Another factor in the initial high attrition rate was the relatively short endurance of the Spitfire: most of the sorties were, as a matter of course, flown over the wide expanse of ocean between Australia, New Guinea and Timor. Even when fitted with drop tanks the Spitfires could not afford to fly too far from base without the danger of running out of fuel over water. As a result, when an incoming raid was detected the Spitfires were forced to climb as fast as possible in an attempt to get into a favourable position. In the prevailing hot, humid climate this meant that the Merlin engines were often overheating even before combat was joined. The Spitfires were fitted with the Vokes tropical filters which reduced performance: in an attempt to increase performance the filters on several Spitfires were removed and replaced by the standard non-tropicalised air intake and lower engine cowlings which had been manufactured by the base workshops. The experiment proved to be a failure and the Spitfires were quickly refitted with the tropical filters.

Many of the Australian and British airmen who flew in 1 Wing were experienced combat veterans, some of whom who had flown P-40s with the Desert Air Force in North Africa, while others had flown Spitfires over Europe. They were used to being able to outmanoeuvre opposing fighters and were shocked to discover that the Zeros they were now flying against were able to out-manoeuvre the Spitfire. Several Spitfires were lost before the pilots learned not to attempt to get into a turning dogfight with the agile Japanese fighters. In spite of these problems the Spitfires were increasingly successful and at times were able to catch the Mitsubishi Ki-46 reconnaissance aircraft which had hitherto flown fast enough and high enough to evade interception.^[50]

In the China Burma India (CBI) Theatre, the first Spitfire VCs reached three squadrons on the India-Burma front in November 1943. These aircraft started being replaced three months later with the first Mk. VIIIs in February 1944. Spitfires were a major part of the defence against the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force (IJAAF) during the Kohima and Imphal campaign of early to mid 1944, in which the Japanese Army attempted to destroy the British 14th Army and invade India. General William Slim, the commander of the 14th Army had planned to use the new Spitfire VIII to protect C-46 Commando transports which were supplying the 14th Army by air. After days of battling with Ki-43 "Oscars" and Ki-44 "Tojos", the airlift proceeded as the Japanese troops and aircraft withdrew.

In Australia, the first Spitfire VIII versions were received by the RAAF in October 1943.It was intended for the Spitfire VIII to replace the struggling, mechanical problem-plagued Spitfire Vc but the IJAAF had shifted its focus from the conquering of Australia to the defence against the United States and Allied forces in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea.

The Spitfire had never been designed as a fighter able to operate in the fierce tropical climates encountered in the CBI and Australia's Northern Territory, and its short endurance was a liability. Nevertheless, the aircraft was a superb dogfighter and was faster and could out-gun nearly every Japanese fighter it encountered. The Mk VIII was up to 50 mph faster than contemporary Japanese fighters and it was much more manoeuvrable than its American counterparts. It could be seen as a compromise between the American need for speed and the Japanese yearning for manoeuvrability. The fighter served mainly in the defence of the Eastern Commonwealth countries and found success against the more manoeuvrable Japanese fighters by using an altitude and climb advantage. This additional height allowed the Spitfire to dive to gain speed, attack the enemy and climb out of range very quickly to avoid damage.

[edit] D-day to VE Day

After the Normandy landings, some Spitfires (Griffon and Merlin engine marks) were retained in Britain to counter the V-1 flying bomb offensive in mid-1944 as part of the ADGB. Supplies of a new aviation fuel, which was called "150 Grade", arrived from America in March 1944 and sufficient quantities were available to be used by ADGB fighters as the V1 offensive started. The new fuel enabled the Rolls-Royce Merlin and Griffon engines to operate at higher boost pressures, especially at lower altitudes.^[51]

Almost forgotten are the Spitfires operated as "Spotters" by VCS-7 in support of United States Navy and Royal Navy cruisers and battleships bombarding land targets during and after D-Day: US spotting units normally used floatplanes, either SOC Seagulls or OS2U Kingfishers, but because of their vulnerability against fighters, it was decided that 17 Cruiser Spotter (VCS) and Battleship Observation (VO) pilots aboard the heavy cruisers Augusta (CA 31), Tuscaloosa (CA 37) and Quincy (CA 71), and the battleships Arkansas (BB 33), Texas (BB 35) and Nevada (BB 36) were trained to fly RAF Spitfire Mk VBs and Seafire IIIs. This unit, along with two RAF squadrons, 26 and 63, also flying Spifire VBs and Seafire IIIs, provided valuable target coordinates and fire control during 20 days of operations.^[52]

The bulk of the Spitfire squadrons were moved across the Channel, operating as part of the 2nd TAF from forward airfields close to enemy lines. As the Allied air forces achieved air supremacy, most of the Merlin engined Mk IX and XVI units were used in the fighter-bomber role, concentrating their efforts on roaming over German territory, attacking ground targets of opportunity and providing tactical ground support to the army units. In this role there were fewer opportunities to engage Luftwaffe fighters. The Merlin's glycol cooling system proved particularly vulnerable to small arms fire, with one hit in the wrong place being enough to eventually cause the engine to seize.

The Griffon-powered Spitfire F. Mark XIVs were deployed with the 2nd TAF on the Continent as one of the main British fighter types used in the air-combat role, alongside the Tempest V and Mustang III & IV. Spitfire XIVs often provided high altitude cover for the Tempests, which operated as low-to-medium altitude fighters.

[edit] Postwar service

Following the Second World War, the Spitfire remained in use with many air forces around the world.

Europe

Soon after the end of the Second World War, the Swedish Air Force equipped a photo reconnaissance wing, F 11 in Nyköping (just south of Stockholm), with 50 Mk XIXs, designated S 31. Several S 31 photographic missions in the late 1940s entailed flagrant violations of Soviet and, at least once, Finnish airspace in order to document activities at the air and naval installations in the Baltic and Kola regions. At that time, no Soviet fighter was able to reach the operational altitude of the S 31. No Swedish aircraft were lost during those clandestine operations. However, by the early 1950s, Soviet air defenses had become so effective that such practices had to cease. The S 31s were replaced by jet-powered SAAB S 29Cs in the mid-1950s.

Spitfires played a major role in the Greek Civil War, flown by the RAF and SAAF during October–December 1944, and by the Hellenic Air Force from 1946 to the end of the war in August 1949.

After the Second World War, eight flyable Italian Air Force Mk Vs were supplemented by 145 Mk IXs (obtained in two batches of 60 and 85 aircraft). The Spitfire went into service with 51 and 5 imo Stormo (wing) flying reconnaissance missions over the Balkans as well as acting in cooperation with the Italian Army and providing a defensive force. Well-liked by pilots, the Spitfires were involved in several postwar air races and trophy competitions including the Zerbinati Trophy. Italian P-51s and Spitfires were entered in the handicap race with P-51s penalized by a minute for speed, and Spitfires penalised a similar amount in climb rate. The Spitfire Mk IX remained in service until 1950–1952 when 30 survivors were supplied to the Israeli Air Force (HHA); eventually, these ex-Italian aircraft were sent to Burma in 1954–55.^[45] Today, one ex-Italian Air Force Spitfire Mk IX, MM4084, is on display at Vigna di Valle, Rome.

Middle East

Spitfires last saw combat during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, when, in a strange twist, Israeli Air Force Spitfires flown by former RAF pilots such as Ezer Weizman engaged Egyptian Spitfires and Royal Air Force Spitfires.

South Asia;

Spitfires were employed by the Indian Air Force in the 1947 Indo-Pakistan War^[53] against invading tribals in Kashmir.

Private

One notable variant was the privately-owned LV-NMZ (Argentine registration). This was a PR XI, PL-972, purchased by James Elwyn Storey and his brother Jack to perform aerial photography for the Argentine government. Both served in the RAF during the Second World War. James flew his Spitfire from Bournemouth (UK) to Gibraltar, on to Dakar in Senegal, from Dakar to Natal in Brazil, then Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre and finally Buenos Aires. Using external wing tanks and a belly ferry tank, he established two records: one for the heaviest fuel load ever carried by a Spitfire and one for the longest flight for a Spitfire – the Dakar to Natal leg of approximately 1,870 miles.

Some air forces retained Spitfires in service well into the 1960s.

[edit] See also

• British military history of World War II
• Military history of the Soviet Union
  

[edit] References

[edit] Notes

[edit] Bibliography

[edit] External links

• The Spitfire Site
• The Spitfire Society
• Alan Le Marinel hosts Supermarine Spitfire
• Spitfire Performance Testing
• Combat History of the Supermarine Spitfire - The Defence of Malta (1942)
• Spitfire/Seafire Serial Numbers, production contracts and aircraft histories
• The Supermarine Spitfire in Indian Air Force Service
• Spitfires over the Kuban
• Spitfire Mk. VIII *Mk. XVI Temora Aviation Museum page

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