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Contents 1 GoogleBooks 1.1 Gr(a)eco-Norman 1.2 Lombardo-Norman 1.3 Arab(o)-Norman 2 PHG's article 2.1 Cultural interactions 2.2 Transmission to Europe 2.3 Aftermath 2.4 See also 2.5 References 2.6 PHG's refs 2.7 External links 2.8 Notes 2.9 Architecture 2.9.1 Apulia 2.9.2 Calabria 2.9.3 Campania 2.9.4 Sicily 2.9.5 Arabo-Norman style 2.10 Fine arts 2.10.1 Music 2.10.2 Visual arts 2.10.3 Sculpture 2.11 Literature 2.11.1 Latin 2.11.2 Greek 2.11.3 Arabic 2.11.4 Vernacular 2.12 References 2.12.1 Bibliography 2.12.2 External links 2.12.3 Notes 2.13 See also

[edit] GoogleBooks

[edit] Gr(a)eco-Norman

"S. Cataldo, which is in the Greco- Norman style" (1913 Catholic)

S. Carcere with a "Graeco-Norman portal of the 11th cent" (Baedeker 1908)

"Graeco-Norman cathedral of Cefalù" (Murray 1884)

"Graeco-Norman architecture. The Greek influence on the Norman style of architecture is distinctly visible at the Convent of S. Nicola" (Sladen 1907)

"The mosaics of the fifth and sixth centuries have their direct (extant) successors in the Greco-Norman mosaics of the twelfth century" (Bunge 2007)

"Venice rendered valuable military service by the dispatch of a fleet to aid the Empire against the Arabs at Bari in 1003, and again during the Greco-Norman wars" (Geanakaplos 1962)

"the Greco-Norman portal of the Church of San Carcere in the same city" at Catania (Tiner and Harris 2000)

[edit] Lombardo-Norman

"when we reach the beginning of the twelfth century, both the pure Norman and the undecorated Byzantine styles have been abandoned and two schools divide the province: Sicilian Oriental and the Lombardo-Norman Oriental" (Sturgis 1989 [1901])

"I knew that I was entering a land rich in what I choose to call Byzantine-Romanesque, Norman-Romanesque, or Lombardo-Norman-Byzantine-Romanesque or even Frederician Romanesque" (O'Faoláin 1953)

"lateral apses projecting from the sides of the arms of the transept are a feature which first appears in the Lombardo-Norman basilica" (Rivoira 1918)

"arcaded wall galleries which are a characteristic feature, and an original one, of the Lombardo-Norman style" (Rivoira 1910)

"The plan of the church is Lombardo-Norman. The basilican nave is wide, with narrow aisles" (Yust 1952)]

[edit] Arab(o)-Norman

"The term "Arab-Norman" refers to the style of buildings in the southern part of the Italian peninsula during the rule of the Normans..." (Bussagli 2005)

"The characteristics of the early Arabo-Norman work are stilted arches in churches" (Sladen 1907)

[edit] PHG's article

[edit] Cultural interactions

An intense Arab-Normand culture developed, examplified by rulers such as Roger II of Sicily, who had Islamic soldiers, poets and scientists at his court.^[1] Roger II himself spoke Arabic perfectly and was fond of Arabian culture.^[2] He used Arab troops and siege engines in his campaigns in southern Italy. He mobilized Arab architects to build monuments in the Arab-Norman style. The various agricultural and industrial techniques which had been introduced by Arabs into Sicily over the two preceding years were kept and developed, allowing for the remarkable prosperity of the Island.^[3]

One of the greatest geographical treatises of the Middle Ages was written by the Maroccan Idrisi for Roger, and entitled Kitab Rudjdjar ("The book of Roger").^[4] The Norman Kingdom of Sicily under Roger II was characterised by its multi-ethnic nature and religious tolerance.^[5] Normans, Jews, Muslim Arabs, Byzantine Greeks, Longobards and "native" Sicilians lived in harmony.^[6][7] He dreamed of establishing an Empire that would have encompassed Fatimid Egypt and the Crusader states in the Levant.^[8]

Although the language of the court was French (Langue d'oïl), all royal edicts were written in the language of the ethnicity they were adressed to, whether Latin, Greek, Arab, or Hebrew.^[9] Roger's royal mantel, used for his coronation (and also used for the coronation of Frederick II), bore an inscription in Arabic with the Egira date of 528 (1133-1134).

Islamic authors would marvel at the tolerance of the Norman kings:

”They [the Muslims] were treated kindly, and they were protected, even against the Franks. Because of that, they had great love for king Roger”

– Ibn al-Athir^[10]

Interactions continued with the succeeding Norman kings, for example under William II of Sicily, as attested by the Spanish-Arab geographer Ibn Jubair who landed in the island after returning from a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1184. To his surprise, Ibn Jubair enjoyed a very warm reception by the Norman Christians. He was further surprised to find that even the Christians spoke Arabic, that the government officials were still largely Muslim, and that the heritage of some 130 previous years of Muslim rule of Sicily was still intact:^[11]

"The attitude of the king is really extraordinary. His attitude towards the Muslims is perfect: he gives them employement, he choses his officers among them, and all, or almost all, keep their faith secret and can remain faithfull to the faith of Islam. The king has full confidence in the Muslims and relies on them to handle many of his affairs, including the most important ones, to the point that the Great Intendant for cooking is a Muslim (...) His viziers and chamberlains are eunuchs, of which there are many, who are the members of his government and on whom he relies for his private affairs”.

– Ibn Jubair, Rihla.^[12]

Ibn Jubair also mentionned that many Christians in Palermo wore the Muslim dress, and many spoke Arabic. The Norman kings also continued to strike coins in Arabic with Hegira dates. The registers at the Royal court were written in Arabic.^[13] At one point, William II of Sicily is recorded to have said: “Everyone of you should invoke the one he adores and of whom he follows the faith”.^[14]

[edit] Transmission to Europe

The points of contact between Europe and Islamic lands were multiple during the Middle Ages, with Sicilia playing a key role in the transmission of knowledge to Europe, although less important that of Spain.^[15] The main points of transmission of Islamic knowledge to Europe were in Sicilia, and in Islamic Spain, particularly in Toledo (with Gerard of Cremone, 1114-1187, following the conquest of the city by the Spanish Christians in 1085). Many exchange also occured in the Levant due to the presence of the Crusaders there.^[16] For Europe, Sicily became a model and an example which was universally admired.^[17]

[edit] Aftermath

Arabic art and science continued to be heavily influential in Sicily during the two centuries following the Christian conquest. Norman rule formally ended in 1198 with the reign of Constance of Sicily, and was replaced by that of the Swabian Hohenstaufen Dynasty. Constance's son Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Sicily in the early 13th century, who was Norman by his mother and Swabian by his father Emperor Henry VI, spoke Arabic and had several Muslim ministers.

In 1224 CE however, Frederick II, responding to religious uprisings in Sicily, expelled all Muslims from the island, transferring many to Lucera over the next two decades. In this controlled environment, they couldn't challenge royal authority and they benefited the crown in taxes and military service. Their numbers eventually reached between 15,000 and 20,000, leading Lucera to be called Lucaera Saracenorum because it represented the last stronghold of Islamic presence in Italy. The colony thrived for 75 years until it was sacked in 1300 by Christian forces under the command of Charles II of Naples. The city's Muslim inhabitants were exiled or sold into slavery,^[18] with many finding asylum in Albania across the Adriatic Sea.^[19] Their abandoned mosques were destroyed or converted, and churches arose upon the ruins, including the cathedral S. Maria della Vittoria.

Even under Manfred (died in 1266) Islamic influence in Sicily persisted though, but it had almost disapearred by the beginning of the 14th century.^[20] Latin progressively replaced Arabic however: the last Sicilian document in the Arabian language is dated to 1245.^[21]

[edit] See also

• Islam in Italy
• History of Islam in Southern Italy
• Norman conquest of southern Italy
• Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe
• Norman architecture
• Italo-Normans

[edit] References

[edit] PHG's refs

• Amari, M. (2002). Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia. Le Monnier. 
• Previte-Orton, C. W. (1971). The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
• Musca, Giosuè (1964). L'emirato di Bari, 847-871. Bari: Dedalo Litostampa. 
• Taylor, Julie Anne (April 2007). "Freedom and Bondage among Muslims in Southern Italy during the Thirteenth Century". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 27 (1): 71-77. 
• Lewis, Bernard, Les Arabes dans l'histoire, 1993, Flammarion, ISBN 2080813625
• Lebédel, Claude, Les Croisades. Origines et conséquences, Editions Ouest-France, 2006, ISBN 2737341361
• Les Normands en Sicile under the direction of Antonino Buttitta, Musée de Normandie, Ville de Caen, ISBN 8874393288
• Aubé, Pierre, Les empires normands d’Orient, 2006, Editions Perrin, ISBN 2262022976

[edit] External links

• Leeds University Medieval History Texts Centre. Look under the heading "The Norman Kingdom of Sicily" for primary sources available in translation online.
• The Normans, a European People, by the European Commission

[edit] Notes

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The art and architecture of the period from approximately 1050 to 1250 in southern Italy, Sicily, and Malta is called Italo-Norman after the Norman conquerors who took over that territory in the latter half of the eleventh century. It was a unique fusion of styles both regionally and religiously distinct, with their different origins found in in places far away from the land in which they were fused.

The Normans imported Romanesque architecture from Normandy and modified it, through the use of indigenous craftsman, to form a unique style called Sicilian Romanesque. Sometimes the term Greco- or Graeco-Norman is used to refer to specifically Byzanatine-influenced architecture and the term Arab- or Arabo-Norman to refer to specifically Islamic-influenced.^[1][2][3][4] Buildings constructed in areas dominated by Lombards, where the Latin rite was strong and the influence of Rome felt, the architecture has been described as Lombardo-Norman.

[edit] Architecture

[edit] Apulia

The Normans began constructing castles, their trademark architectural piece, in Italy from an early date. William Iron Arm built one at an unidentified location (Stridula) in Calabria in 1045. After the death of Robert Guiscard in 1085, peninsular southern Italy experienced a series of civil wars and fell under the control of increasingly weaker princes. Revolts characterised the region until well into the twelfth century and minor lords sought to resist ducal or royal power from within their own castles. In the Molise, the Normanas embarked on their most extensive castle-building programme. There they introduced the opus gallicum technique to Italy.

Besides the encastellation of the countryside, the Normans erected several religious buildings which still survive. They edified the shrine at Monte Sant'Angelo and built a mausoleum to the Hauteville family at Venosa. They also built many new Latin monasteries, including the famous foundation of Sant'Eufemia.

[edit] Calabria

[edit] Campania

[edit] Sicily

Sicily's Norman period lasted from circa 1070 until about 1200, debatable perhaps until the demise of Frederick II, in 1250, so can approximately be equated with the same period in England. Similar in many ways to the Norman architecture which evolved in England and northern France it also incorporated certain Byzantine influences. These Byzantine motifs were particularly obvious in the interiors of certain churches where the traditional Norman altar tribunes were decorated in gilded mosaics such as that at the cathedral at Monreale. The Palatine Chapel in Palermo built in 1130 is the perhaps the strongest example of this where the interior of the dome (itself a Byzantine feature) is decorated in mosaic depicting Christ Pantocrator accompanied by his angels.

During Sicily's later Norman era early Gothic influences can de detected such as those in the cathedral at Messina consecrated in 1197. However, here the high Gothic campanile is of a later date, and should not be confused with the early Gothic built during the Norman period, which featured pointed arches and windows rather than the flying buttresses and pinnacles later to manifest themselves in the Gothic era.

• Edifices in Palermo
  • Norman palace with its Palatine Chapel
  • Zisa
  • Cuba
  • Cathedral of Palermo
  • San Giovanni dei Lebbrosi
  • San Giovanni degli Eremiti
  • La Martorana
  • San Cataldo
• Monreale Cathedral and Benedictine cloister
• Messina Cathedral
• Cefalù Cathedral

[edit] Arabo-Norman style

The new Norman rulers started to build various constructions in what is called the Arab-Norman style. They incorporated the best practices of Arab and Byzantine architecture into their own art.^[7]

The Church of Saint-John of the Hermits, was built in Palermo by Roger II around 1143-1148 in such a style. The church is notable for its brilliant red domes, which show clearly the persistence of Arab influences in Sicily at the time of its reconstruction in the 12th century. In his Diary of an Idle Woman in Sicily, F. Elliot described it as "... totally oriental... it would fit well in Baghdad or Damascus". The bell tower, with four orders of arcaded loggias, is instead a typical example of Gothic architecture.

The Cappella Palatina, also in Palermo, combines harmoniously a variety of styles: the Norman architecture and door decor, the Arabic arches and scripts adorning the roof, the Byzantine dome and mosaics. For instance, clusters of four eight-pointed stars, typical for Muslim design, are arranged on the ceiling so as to form a Christian cross.

The Monreale cathedral, is generally described as "Arab-Norman". The outsides of the principal doorways and their pointed arches are magnificently enriched with carving and colored inlay, a curious combination of three styles - Norman-French, Byzantine and Arab.

Other examples of Arab-Norman architecture include the Palazzo dei Normanni‎, or Castelbuono. This style of construction would persist until the 14th and the 15th century, examplified by the use of the cupola.^[8]

[edit] Fine arts

[edit] Music

At Saint Evroul, a tradition of singing had developed and the choir achieved fame in Normandy. Under the Norman abbot Robert de Grantmesnil, several monks of Saint-Evroul fled to southern Italy, where they were patronised by Robert Guiscard and established a Latin monastery at Sant'Eufemia. There they continued the tradition of singing.

[edit] Visual arts

In southern Italy, Norman artwork survives plentifully in forms strongly influenced by its Greek, Lombard, and Arab forebears. Of the royal regalia preserved in Palermo, the crown is Byzantine in style and the coronation cloak is of Arab craftsmanship with Arabic inscriptions. Many churches preserve sculptured fonts, capitals, and more importantly mosaics, which were common in Norman Italy and drew heavily on the Greek heritage. Lombard Salerno was a centre of ivorywork in the eleventh century and this continued under Norman domination. Finally should be noted the intercourse between French Crusaders travelling to the Holy Land who brough with them French artefacts with which to gift the churches at which they stopped in southern Italy amongs their Norman cousins. For this reason many south Italian churches preserve works from France alongside their native pieces.

Numerous artistic techniques from the Islamic world were also incoporated to form the basis of Arab-Norman art: inlays in mosaics or metals, sculpture of ivory or porphyry, sculputure of hard stones, bronze founderies, manufacture of silk (for which Roger II established a regium ergasterium, a state enterprise which would give Sicily the monopoly of silk manufacture for all Europe).^[10]

[edit] Sculpture

[edit] Literature

[edit] Latin

[edit] Greek

[edit] Arabic

[edit] Vernacular

[edit] References

[edit] Bibliography

[edit] External links

• Leeds University Medieval History Texts Centre. Look under the heading "The Norman Kingdom of Sicily" for primary sources available in translation online.
• The Normans, a European People, by the European Commission

[edit] Notes

[edit] See also

• Islam in Italy
• History of Islam in Southern Italy
• Norman conquest of southern Italy
• Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe
• Norman architecture
• Italo-Normans