Spherical Earth

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Medieval artistic representation of a spherical Earth - with compartments representing earth, air, and water (c.1400).
Medieval artistic representation of a spherical Earth - with compartments representing earth, air, and water (c.1400).

The concept of a spherical Earth dates back to around the 6th century BC in ancient Greek philosophy and Indian philosophy. In Greece, the concept was espoused by Pythagoras, apparently on aesthetic grounds,[1] as he also held all other celestial bodies to be spherical. In India, the concept of a spherical Earth was recognized in the Shatapatha Brahmana and Aitareya Brahmana.[2][3]

The concept of a spherical Earth displaced earlier beliefs in a flat Earth: In early Mesopotamian thought, the world was portrayed as a flat disk floating in the ocean, and this forms the premise for early Greek maps like those of Anaximander and Hecataeus of Miletus. Other speculations on the shape of Earth include a seven-layered ziggurat or cosmic mountain, alluded to in the Avesta and ancient Persian writings (see seven climes).

As determined by modern instruments, a sphere approximates the earth's shape to within one part in 300. An oblate ellipsoid with a flattening of 1/300 approximates the earth exceedingly well. See Figure of the Earth.

Contents

[edit] Early development

[edit] Greece

[edit] Pythagoras

Early Greek philosophers alluded to a spherical earth, though with some ambiguity.[4] This idea influenced Pythagoras (b. 570 BCE), who saw harmony in the universe and sought to explain it. He reasoned that Earth and the other planets must be spheres, since the most harmonious geometric solid form is a sphere[1]. After the fifth century BCE, no Greek writer of repute thought the world was anything but round.[4]

[edit] Herodotus

In The Histories, written 431 BCE - 425 BCE, Herodotus dismisses a report of the sun observed shining from the north. This arises when discussing the circumnavigation of Africa undertaken c. 615-595 BCE. (The Histories, 4.43) His dismissive comment attests to a widespread ignorance of the ecliptic's inverted declination in a southern hemisphere.

[edit] Plato

Plato (427 BCE - 347 BCE) travelled to southern Italy to study Pythagorean mathematics. When he returned to Athens and established his school, Plato also taught his students that Earth was a sphere. If man could soar high above the clouds, Earth would resemble "a ball made of twelve pieces of leather, variegated, a patchwork of colours."

[edit] Aristotle

When a ship is at the horizon its lower part is invisible due to Earth's curvature. This was one of the first arguments favoring a round-earth model.
When a ship is at the horizon its lower part is invisible due to Earth's curvature. This was one of the first arguments favoring a round-earth model.

Aristotle (384 BCE - 322 BCE) was Plato's prize student and "the mind of the school." Aristotle observed "there are stars seen in Egypt and [...] Cyprus which are not seen in the northerly regions." Since this could only happen on a curved surface, he too believed Earth was a sphere "of no great size, for otherwise the effect of so slight a change of place would not be quickly apparent." (De caelo, 298a2-10)

Aristotle provided physical and observational arguments supporting the idea of a spherical Earth:

  • Every portion of the earth tends toward the center until by compression and convergence they form a sphere. (De caelo, 297a9-21)
  • Travelers going south see southern constellations rise higher above the horizon; and
  • The shadow of Earth on the Moon during a lunar eclipse is round. (De caelo, 297b31-298a10)

The concepts of symmetry, equilibrium and cyclic repetition permeated Aristotle's work. In his Meteorology he divided the world into five climatic zones: two temperate areas separated by a torrid zone near the equator, and two cold inhospitable regions, "one near our upper or northern pole and the other near the ... southern pole," both impenetrable and girdled with ice (Meteorologica, 362a31-35). Although no humans could survive in the frigid zones, inhabitants in the southern temperate regions could exist.

[edit] Eratosthenes

Eratosthenes (276 BCE - 194 BCE) estimated Earth's circumference around 240 BCE. He had heard that in Syene the Sun was directly overhead at the summer solstice whereas in Alexandria it still cast a shadow. Using the differing angles the shadows made as the basis of his trigonometric calculations he estimated a circumference of around 250,000 stades. The length of a 'stade' is not precisely known, but Eratosthenes' figure only has an error of around five to ten percent.[5][6]

[edit] Claudius Ptolemy

Claudius Ptolemy (CE 90 - 168) lived in Alexandria, the centre of scholarship in the second century. Around 150, he produced his eight-volume Geographia.

The first part of the Geographia is a discussion of the data and of the methods he used. As with the model of the solar system in the Almagest, Ptolemy put all this information into a grand scheme. He assigned coordinates to all the places and geographic features he knew, in a grid that spanned the globe. Latitude was measured from the equator, as it is today, but Ptolemy preferred to express it as the length of the longest day rather than degrees of arc (the length of the midsummer day increases from 12h to 24h as you go from the equator to the polar circle). He put the meridian of 0 longitude at the most western land he knew, the Canary Islands.

Geographia indicated the countries of "Serica" and "Sinae" (China) at the extreme right, beyond the island of "Taprobane" (Sri Lanka, oversized) and the "Aurea Chersonesus" (Southeast Asian peninsula).

Ptolemy also devised and provided instructions on how to create maps both of the whole inhabited world (oikoumenè) and of the Roman provinces. In the second part of the Geographia he provided the necessary topographic lists, and captions for the maps. His oikoumenè spanned 180 degrees of longitude from the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean to China, and about 81 degrees of latitude from the Arctic to the East Indies and deep into Africa. Ptolemy was well aware that he knew about only a quarter of the globe.

[edit] India

[edit] Brahmana literature

A spherical earth is recognized in the Shatapatha Brahmana (ca. 7th-6th century BC) and the Aitareya Brahmana composed around the same time, and in a later Sanskrit commentary Vishnu Purana.[2][3]

[edit] Aryabhata

The works of the classical Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476 - 550 CE) deal with the sphericity of the Earth and the motion of the planets. The final two parts of his Sanskrit magnum opus the Aryabhatiya, which were named the Kalakriya ("reckoning of time") and the Gola ("sphere"), state that the earth is spherical and that its circumference is 4,967 yojanas, which in modern units is 39,968 km, very close to the current value of 40,030 km.[7][8] He also stated that the apparent rotation of the celestial objects was due to the actual rotation of the earth, calculating the length of the sidereal day to be 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.1 seconds, which is also surprisingly accurate. It is likely that Aryabhata's results influenced European astronomy, because the 8th century Arabic version of the Aryabhatiya was translated into Latin in the 13th century.

[edit] Armenia

Anania Shirakatsi (Armenian: Անանիա Շիրակացի )(610–685) was an Armenian scholar, mathematician, and geographer. His most famous works are Geography Guide (‘Ashharatsuyts’ in Armenian), and Cosmography. His greatest claim to fame was the fact that the Earth was round, and that there was more to the heavens and world then the standard Aristotelian belief purported at the time. Shirakatsi's work ‘Ashharatsuyts’ reports details and mapping of the ancient homeland of Bulgars in Mount Imeon area of Central Asia.

[edit] Islamic World

Around 830 CE, Caliph al-Ma'mun commissioned a group of astronomers to measure the distance from Tadmur (Palmyra) to al-Raqqah, in modern Syria. They found the cities to be separated by one degree of latitude and the distance between them to be 66 2/3 miles and thus calculated the Earth's circumference to be 24,000 miles.[9]

Many Muslim scholars declared a mutual agreement (Ijma) that celestial bodies are round, among them Ibn Hazm (d. 1069), Ibn al-Jawzi (d. 1200), and Ibn Taymiya (d. 1328).[10] Ibn Taymiya said, "Celestial bodies are round—as it is the statement of astronomers and mathematicians—it is likewise the statement of the scholars of Islam". Abul-Hasan ibn al-Manaadi, Abu Muhammad Ibn Hazm, and Abul-Faraj Ibn Al-Jawzi have said that the Muslim scholars are in agreement that all celestial bodies are round. Ibn Taymiyah also remarked that Allah has said, "And He (Allah) it is Who created the night and the day, the sun and the moon. They float, each in a Falak." Ibn Abbas says, "A Falaka like that of a spinning wheel." The word 'Falak' (in the Arabic language) means "that which is round.[11] [12]

The Muslim scholars who held to the round-earth theory used it in an impeccably Islamic manner, to calculate the distance and direction from any given point on the earth to Mecca. This determined the Qibla, or Muslim direction of prayer. Muslim mathematicians developed spherical trigonometry which was used in these calculations.[13] Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406), in his Muqaddimah, also identified the world as spherical.

[edit] Geodesy

Geodesy, also called geodetics, is the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, its gravitational field and geodynamic phenomena (polar motion, earth tides, and crustal motion) in three-dimensional time-varying space.

Geodesy is primarily concerned with positioning and the gravity field and geometrical aspects of their temporal variations, although it can also include the study of Earth's magnetic field. Especially in the German speaking world, geodesy is divided into geomensuration ("Erdmessung" or "höhere Geodäsie"), which is concerned with measuring the earth on a global scale, and surveying ("Ingenieurgeodäsie"), which is concerned with measuring parts of the surface.

The Earth's shape can be thought of in at least two ways;

  • as the shape of the geoid, the mean sea level of the world ocean; or
  • as the shape of Earth's land surface as it rises above and falls below the sea.

As the science of geodesy measured Earth more accurately, the shape of the geoid was first found not to be a perfect sphere but to approximate an oblate spheroid, a specific type of ellipsoid. More recent measurements have measured the geoid to unprecedented accuracy, revealing mass concentrations beneath Earth's surface.

[edit] Spherical models

Main article: Earth radius
The Earth as seen from the Apollo 17 mission.
The Earth as seen from the Apollo 17 mission.

There are several reasonable ways to approximate Earth's shape as a sphere. Each preserves a different feature of the true Earth in order to compute the radius of the spherical model. All examples in this section assume the WGS 84 datum, with an equatorial radius "a" of 6,378.137 km and a polar radius "b" of 6,356.752 km. A sphere being a gross approximation of the spheroid, which itself is an approximation of the geoid, units are given here in kilometers rather than the millimeter resolution appropriate for geodesy.

  • Preserve the equatorial circumference. This is simplest, being a sphere with circumference identical to the equatorial circumference of the real Earth. Since the circumference is the same, so is the radius, at 6,378.137 km.
  • Preserve the lengths of meridians. This requires an elliptic integral to find, given the polar and equatorial radii: \frac{2a}{\pi}\int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{2}}\sqrt{\cos^2\phi + \frac{b^2}{a^2}\sin^2 \phi}\,d\phi. A sphere preserving the lengths of meridians has a rectifying radius of 6,367.449 km. This can be approximated using the elliptical quadratic mean: \sqrt{\frac{a^2+b^2}{2}}\,\!, about 6,367.454 km.
  • Preserve the average circumference. As there are different ways to define an ellipsoid's average circumference (radius vs. arcradius/radius of curvature; elliptically fixed vs. ellipsoidally "fluid"; different integration intervals for quadrant-based geodetic circumferences), there is no definitive, "absolute average circumference". The ellipsoidal quadratic mean is one simple model: \sqrt{\frac{3a^2+b^2}{4}}\,\!, giving a spherical radius of 6,372.798 km.
  • Preserve the surface area of the real Earth. This gives the authalic radius: \sqrt{\frac{a^2+\frac{ab^2}{\sqrt{a^2-b^2}}\ln{(\frac{a+\sqrt{a^2-b^2}}b)}}{2}}\,\!, or 6,371.007 km.
  • Preserve the volume of the real Earth. This volumetric radius is computed as: \sqrt[3]{a^2b}, or 6,371.001 km.

Note that the authalic and volumetric spheres have radii that differ by less than 7 meters, yet both preserve important properties. Hence both, and occasionally an average of the two, are used.

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b Dicks, D.R. (1970). Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle, 72-198. ISBN 9780801405617. 
  2. ^ a b Haug, Martin and Basu, Major B. D. (1974). The Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rigveda, Containing the Earliest Speculations of the Brahmans on the Meaning of the Sacrifical Prayers. ISBN 0-404-57848-9.
  3. ^ a b Joseph, George G. (2000). The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics, 2nd edition. Penguin Books, London. ISBN 0691006598.
  4. ^ a b Dicks, D.R. (1970). Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle, 68. ISBN 9780801405617. 
  5. ^ "JSC NES School Measures Up", NASA, 11th April, 2006, retrieved 24th January, 2008.
  6. ^ "The Round Earth", NASA, 12th December, 2004, retrieved 24th January, 2008.
  7. ^ Aryabhata_I biography
  8. ^ http://www.gongol.com/research/math/aryabhatiya The Aryabhatiya: Foundations of Indian Mathematics
  9. ^ Gharā'ib al-funūn wa-mulah al-`uyūn (The Book of Curiosities of the Sciences and Marvels for the Eyes), 2.1 "On the mensuration of the Earth and its division into seven climes, as related by Ptolemy and others," (ff. 22b-23a)[1]
  10. ^ History, Science and Civilization: Early Muslim Consensus: The Earth is Round.
  11. ^ History, Science and Civilization: Early Muslim Consensus: The Earth is Round.
  12. ^ Majmu'ul-Fatawa, Vol. 6, pp. 566. (In Arabic.)
  13. ^ David A. King, Astronomy in the Service of Islam, (Aldershot (U.K.): Variorum), 1993.

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

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