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Contents 1 Religion 2 Modern history 3 Cultural background 3.1 Confucianism 3.2 Chinese folk religion 3.3 Ancestor worship 4 Organized religions 4.1 Taoism 4.2 Buddhism 4.3 Islam 4.4 Christianity 4.5 Hinduism 4.6 Judaism 4.7 Indigenous religions 4.8 New movements 5 Faded religions 5.1 Heaven worship 5.2 Manichaeism 5.3 Zoroastrianism 6 Controversy 7 References 8 Further reading

[edit] Religion

Main article: Religion in China

See also: Chinese folk religion and Feng shui

^{[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]}

China religiosity
religion			percent
Buddhism			50%
Taoism			30%
Atheism			14%
Christianity			4%
Islam			1.5%
Others			0.5%

The majority of Chinese people follow Buddhism (between 660 million, 50%, and over 1 billion, 80%^[8][9]) and/or Taoism (400 million, 30%^[10][11]).

Number of adherents to these religions can be overlaid in percentage due to the fact that some Chinese consider themselves both Buddhist and Taoist.^[12][13][14] Buddhists are mostly nominal adherents because only a small proportion of the population (over 8% or over 100 million ^[15][16]) may have taken the formal step of going for refuge.^[17][18] Mahayana (大乘, Dacheng) and its subsets Pure Land (Amidism), Tiantai and Zen are the most widely practiced denominations of Buddhism. Other forms, such as Theravada and Tibetan, are practiced largely by ethnic minorities along the geographic fringes of the Chinese mainland.^[19]

Minority religions are Christianity (between 40 million, 3%^[20], and 54 million, 4%^[21]), Islam (20 million, 1.5%), Hinduism, Dongbaism, Bon, and a number of new religions and sects (particularly Xiantianism and Falun Gong).

A government official recently suggested that there are 16 million Christians.^[22] However, an independent survey by East China Normal University estimated the Christian population at 40 million, much higher than the government's numbers but much lower than numbers favored by some Western observers.^[23] Official figures also indicate that there are about 20 million Muslims.^[24]

According to the surveys of Phil Zuckerman on Adherents.com; in 1998, 59.10% (over 700 million)^[25] of the Chinese population was irreligious.

Religion in China has been characterized by pluralism since the beginning of Chinese history. Temples of many different religions dot China's landscape, particularly those of Taoism, Buddhism, and Chinese folk religion. Mahayana Buddhism remains the largest organized religion in China since its introduction in the 1st century.

The majority of Chinese people follow Buddhism (between 660 million, 50%, and over 1 billion, 80%^[26][27]) and/or Taoism (400 million, 30%^[28][29]).

The number of adherents to these religions can be overlaid in percentage due to the fact that some Chinese consider themselves both Buddhist and Taoist.^[30][31][32] Buddhists are mostly nominal adherents because only a small proportion of the population (over 8% or over 100 million ^[33][34]) may have taken the formal step of going for refuge.^{[35][36][37][38]}

Minority religions are Christianity (between 40 million, 3%^[39], and 54 million, 4%^[40]), Islam (20 million, 1.5%), Hinduism, Dongbaism, Bon, and a number of new religions and sects (particularly Xiantianism and Falun Gong).

According to the surveys of Phil Zuckerman on Adherents.com; in 1993, 59% (over 700 million)^[41] of the Chinese population was irreligious but in the newest survey (same author) in 2005, it was only 14% (over 180 million).^[42][43]

There are intrinsic logistical difficulties in trying to count the number of religious people anywhere, as well as difficulties peculiar to China. According to Phil Zuckerman, "low response rates," "non-random samples," and "adverse political/cultural climates" are all persistent problems in establishing accurate numbers of religious believers in a given locality.^[44] Similar difficulties arise in attempting to subdivide religious people into sects. These issues are especially pertinent in China for two reasons: first, it is a matter of current debate whether several important belief systems in China constitute "religions." As Daniel L. Overmeyer writes, in recent years there has been a "new appreciation...of the religious dimensions of Confucianism, both in its ritual activities and in the inward search for an ultimate source of moral order."^[45]. Many Chinese belief systems have concepts of a sacred and sometimes spiritual natural world yet do not always invoke a concept of personal god (with the exception of Heaven worship, the imperial cult, that was based on serving^[46] an omnipotent, judicious, monotheistic, and supreme being called Shangdi).

Chinese religions are often classified as both religions, philosophies, spiritualities and ways of life. Taoism and Buddhism are considered pantheistic and nontheistic, while Chinese folk religion is widely polytheistic.

Independently of adherence to organized religions (see below), most Chinese ground their spirituality in Chinese folk religion, Confucianism, and ancestor worship. These are not organized religions but rather practices or thought systems denoting membership in ethnic Chinese culture and civilization.

The Chinese religions are family-oriented and, unlike Western religions, do not demand the exclusive adherence of members. Chinese people may visit Buddhist temples while living according to Taoist principles and participating in local ancestor veneration rituals. To cite Rodney L. Taylor, "There is little doubt that Buddhism and Neo-Confucianism are deeply influenced by each other and that at the level of practice, methods from various sources are tried, borrowed, and interrelated."^[47] In other words, the questions of who should be called religious in China, and what religion or religions they should be called are up to debate.

[edit] Modern history

See also: State atheism

The People's Republic of China was established in 1949. Its government is officially atheist, which viewed religion as emblematic of feudalism and foreign colonialism.

Religious belief or practice was banned because it was regarded as backward and superstitious by some of the communist leaders, from Vladimir Lenin to Mao Zedong, who had been critical of religious institutions.^[48]

Houses of worship, including pagodas, temples, mosques, and churches, were converted into non-religious buildings for secular use during its early years. The Cultural Revolution led to a policy of elimination of religions; a massive number of places of worship was destroyed.

This policy relaxed considerably in the late 1970s at the end of the Cultural Revolution and more tolerance of religious expression has been permitted since the 1980s. The 1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China guarantees "freedom of religion" with a number of restrictions. Since the mid-1990s there has been a massive program to rebuild Buddhist and Taoist temples.

The Chinese Communist Party has said that religious belief and membership are incompatible. Party membership is a necessity for many high level careers and posts. That along with other official hostility makes statistical reporting on religious membership difficult.

There are five recognized religions by the state, namely Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism, and Protestantism.^[49]

In recent times, the government has expressed support for Buddhism and Taoism, organizing the World Buddhist Forum in 2006 and the International Forum on the Daodejing in 2007. The government sees these religions as an integral part of Chinese culture^[50].

In October 2007, the new statute of China cites religion as an important element of citizens' life.^[51] However, the Chinese government has banned religious sects such as the Falun Gong and Xiantianism.

[edit] Cultural background

[edit] Confucianism

Main article: Confucianism

The cultural background of Chinese people is deeply influenced by Confucianism (儒家; Rujia). It is a philosophy stressing ethical, moral and social values. Confucian system is sometimes considered the proper culture of the Chinese; consequently, it targets religious tendencies and customs.

Confucianism arose during the 5th century BCE from the teachings of Confucius, collected under the name of the Analects. The Han Dynasty eventually made Confucianism the official state culture, along with Taoism which was the official religion.

Confucian social and political system remained established until 1912, when it was rejected by the new Republic of China and subsequently by the People's Republic of China. Since 2004^[52] Confucianism is experiencing a great revival in China, as it is supported by the central government.

People's Republic of China is establishing institutes for Confucian education all over the world.^[53] The headquarter of all Confucius Institutes around the world locates in Beijing.^[54] China has planned to establish 500 of such institutes by 2010.^[55]

[edit] Chinese folk religion

Main article: Chinese folk religion

Chinese folk religion is considered the collection of folkloric beliefs that draws heavily from Chinese mythology. This religious system is practiced by Chinese people as a cultural matter, independently of their adherence to Buddhism or Taoism.

Chinese folk religion is based on the worship of deities, xians, cultural heroes, demigods and supernatural beings (particularly the Chinese dragon) that vary depending on geographical and local conditions. Chinese folk religion is not organized in institutions, has no clergy or formal rituals, but it has its own temples called joss houses or mius. These buildings are popular in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, while in Mainland China the vast majority of them was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution and the following decades, and the few remaining were converted into Buddhist and Taoist temples^[56]. In the mainland, Chinese folk religion is practiced privately, and shrines survive as home altars.

[edit] Ancestor worship

Main article: Ancestor worship

Chinese veneration of ancestors (拜祖, baizu; or 敬祖, jingzu) dates back to the prehistory. Chinese culture, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism all value filial piety as a top virtue, and the act is a continued display of piety and respect towards departed ancestors.

The veneration of ancestors can even extend to legendary figures or historical, such as the patriarch or founder of one's Chinese surname, virtuous individuals such as Confucius or Guan Yu, or the mythological figures like the Yellow Emperor, supposed as the ancestor of all Chinese people.

The two major festivals involving ancestor veneration are the Qingming Festival and the Double Ninth Festival, but veneration of ancestors is conducted in many other ceremonies, including weddings, funerals, and triad initiations.

Worshipers generally offer prayers and food for the ancestors, light incense and candles, and burn offerings of joss paper. These activities are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, at an ancestral temple, or at a household shrine.

Whether this act constitutes a form of veneration, or of worship, became part of the Chinese Rites controversy which brought up the debate over whether or not the practice conflicted with the beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church.

[edit] Organized religions

[edit] Taoism

Main article: Taoism in China

Taoism (道教; Daojiao in Chinese) is a religion born in China itself in the 6th century BC and is traditionally traced to the composition of the Tao Te Ching or to the founding of the Way of the Celestial Masters by Zhang Daoling in the 2nd century, although some Taoist schools trace their origin much earlier. Taoist religion builds on earlier concepts found in wisdom texts such as the Tao Te Ching.

This work is attributed to the sage Laozi, a person who subsequently came to be venerated by some as a deity. The theology of Taoism is centered on the Tao (the Way), the essence of all existing things and an understanding of which can be likened to recognizing the true nature of the universe. In 1956 a national organization, the Chinese Taoist Association (with chapters in every province and city) was set up to administrate Taoist activities.

Banned during the Cultural Revolution (along with all other religions), Taoism is undergoing a major revival today ^[57], and it is the spirituality followed by about 30% (400 million) of the total Chinese population. ^[58]

In April 2007 in China took place the International Forum on the Daodejing, during which celebrities and government officials expressed will to support Taoism as one of the foundations of Chinese culture.^[59] Chinese Taoist clergy is organizing missionary systems to spread the spirituality around the world.^[60]

[edit] Buddhism

Main articles: Buddhism in China and Buddhism in Tibet

Buddhism (called 佛教, Fojiao) was introduced from South Asia and Central Asia during the Han Dynasty, traditionally in the 1st century. It became very popular among Chinese of all walks of life, admired by commoners, and sponsored by emperors in certain dynasties. It is estimated that in the 9th century Buddhist institutions were the most powerful of China, surpassing the Taoist ones.

This led to the so called Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution, which saw Buddhism repressed. Although the persecution was heavy, Buddhism survived and reflourished in the following centuries. It was quite popular during the ancient Chinese dynasties such as Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui Dynasty, Tang Dynasty, Song Dynasty, etc. Buddhism is deeply embedded in the culture of China, Chinese philosophy, and in Chinese beliefs.

With the rise of People's Republic of China in 1949 Buddhism was banned and many temples and monasteries destroyed. Restrictions lasted until the 1980s. The Chinese Buddhist Association was founded in 1953. In recent times, Buddhism has recovered popularity and it is returned to be the largest organized faith in the country. While estimates of the number of Buddhists in China range widely, Chinese government statistics estimates the number of Buddhists at 100 million.^[61]

More recent surveys put the total number of Chinese Buddhists between 660 million (50%) and over 1 billion (80%),^[62][63] thus making China the country with the most Buddhist adherents in the world, followed by Japan. Buddhism is growing fast among successful urban professional people.^[64] The vast majority of Chinese Buddhists are Mahayana; while Tibetans, Mongols traditionally follow their denomination of Buddhism, small communities of Theravada also exist among the minority ethnic groups live in southern provinces as Yunnan and Guangxi which are border Burma, Thailand and Laos . It should be noted that many Chinese Mahayanists identify themselves as Taoist and Buddhist at the same time.

Buddhism is tacitly supported by the government. The 108-metre-high statue is the world's tallest of Guanyin Statue of Hainan was enshrined on April 24, 2005; with the participation of 108 eminent monks from various Buddhist groups in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macao and Mainland China, and tens of thousands of pilgrims. The delegation also included monks from the Theravada and Vajrayana traditions^{[65] [66]}. China is one of the countries where owns many world's highest Buddhist statues.

In April 2006 China organized the World Buddhist Forum and in March 2007 the government banned mining on Buddhist sacred mountains^[67]. In May of the same year, in Changzhou, world's tallest pagoda was built and opened.^[68][69][70]

However, some restrictions of Tibetan Buddhism are due to controversies about its hierarchy, and the issue of the succession of Tenzin Gyatso the current 14th Dalai Lama (who wasn't invited to the World Buddhist Forum). Gyatso - who was not only the spiritual leader, but also the sovereign of Tibet - is in exile, and China currently intends to elect its own 15th Dalai Lama. In August 2007 China has prohibited the reincarnation of Tibetan living buddhas without permission of the government, thus limiting the influence of Tenzin Gyatso and new Tibetan Buddhist monks.^[71]

See also: Neo-Confucianism, East Asian Buddhism, Buddhism and Eastern teaching

[edit] Islam

Main articles: Islam in China and History of Islam in China

Islam (called 伊斯兰教, Yisilanjiao) was first brought to China in 651, eighteen years after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, by an envoy led by Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas, the maternal uncle of the Prophet himself.^[72] The Tang Emperor Yung Wei showed esteem for Islam and established the Canton Mosque which also known as the Memorial Mosque, in memory of the Prophet.

Many Muslims went to China to trade, and virtually dominated the import and export industry by the time of the Song Dynasty (960-1279).^[72] During the Yuan Dynasty, Muslims headed many corporations in China and Muslim architects learned from Han architecture and helped design the construction of the Yuan capital of Dadu.^[73]

During the Ming Dynasty, Muslims continued their influential on government. For example, six of the founder of Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang's most trusted generals were Muslim, including Lan Yu who led a strong Ming army out of the Great Wall and won a decisive victory over the Mongols, effectively ending the Mongol dream to re-conquer China. During this time, the Muslims in China who were descended from earlier immigration began to assimilate by speaking Chinese dialects and by adopting Chinese names and culture.

This era also saw Nanjing become an important center of Islamic study.^[74] The rise of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) worsened relations between Muslims and non Muslims, leading to bloody rebellions, most notably the Panthay Rebellion and the Dungan revolt, which caused the deaths of millions of Muslims.^[75]

Sun Yat Sen, after the fall of the Qing Dynasty, proclaimed that the country belonged equally to the Han, Manchu, Mongol, Tibetan and Hui peoples (generally believers of Islam, including all various Muslim ethnic groups in China). In 1911, the provinces of Qinhai, Gansu and Ningxia fell to Muslim warlords of the family known as the Ma clique. Today, Islam is experiencing a modest revival. There has been an upsurge in Islamic expression and many nation-wide Islamic associations have organized to co-ordinate inter-ethnic activities among Muslims.

Muslims are found in every province in China. Of China's 55 officially recognized minority peoples, ten groups are predominately Muslim. The largest groups in descending order are Huis, Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyzs, Tatars, Uzbeks, Tajiks, Dongxiangs, Salars and Bonans.^[76]. According to government figures, there are 20 million Muslims, 35.000 Islamic places of worship, and more than 45,000 imams in China.^[72] Most estimates are around 20 million to 30 million people (1.5% to 2% of the total)^[77][78]. In 2006, a record number of Chinese departed to Mecca for the hajj, up 40 percent from the previous year.^[79]

See also: Chinese mosques, Chinese Islamic cuisine

[edit] Christianity

Main article: Christianity in China

Christianity in China (called 基督教, or Christ religion) comprises Protestants, Catholics, and a small number of Orthodox Christians. Christianity has been a growing minority religion for over 200 years.^[80] Growth has been more significant since the loosening of restrictions on religion after the 1970s within the People's Republic. Religious practices are still often tightly controlled by government authorities. Chinese over age 18 in the PRC are permitted to be involved with officially sanctioned Christian meetings through the "Three-Self Patriotic Movement" or the "Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association".^[81] Many Chinese Christians also meet in "unregistered" house church meetings. Reports of sporadic persecution against such Christians in Mainland China have caused concern among outside observers^[82].

Christianity has developed in China since at least the 7th century AD. The introduction of Assyrian Church of the East, around 635 is considered by some to be the first entry of the Christian religion into China. During the Tang dynasty, Nestorianism flourished for a while in China but did the Tang dynasty adopted anti-religious measures in 845. Meanwhile, Christianity reached the periphery of China as far as Mongolia. Christianity again came to China was during the Yuan dynasty, when Franciscan missionaries were commissioned by the Pope in 1294. Organized Christianity failed to survive the end of the Yuan dynasty in China.

At the end of the Ming dynasty, Jesuits arrived in Beijing via Guangzhou. The most famous was Matteo Ricci, an Italian mathematician who came to China in 1588 and lived in Beijing in 1600. Ricci was welcomed at the imperial court and introduced Western learning into China. The Jesuits followed a policy of accommodation to the traditional Chinese practice of ancestor worship, but this doctrine was eventually condemned by the Pope. Roman Catholic missions struggled in obscurity for decades afterwards.

Christianity began to take root in a significant way in the Chinese Empire during the Qing Dynasty, and although it has remained a minority religion in China, it has had significant recent historical impact. Further waves of missionaries came to China in the Qing Dynasty as a result of contact with foreign powers. Russian Orthodoxy was introduced in 1715 and Protestants began entering China in 1807. The pace of missionary activity increased considerably after the First Opium War in 1842. Christian missionaries and their schools, under the protection of the Western powers, went on to play a major role in the Westernization of China in the 19th and 20th centuries.

The Taiping Rebellion was influenced to some degree by Christian teachings, and the Boxer Rebellion was in part a reaction against Christianity in China. Christians in China established the first modern clinics and hospitals^[83], and provided the first modern training for nurses. Both Roman Catholics and Protestants founded numerous educational institutions in China from the primary to the university level. Some of the most prominent Chinese universities began as religious-founded institutions. Missionaries worked to abolish practices such as foot binding ^[84], and the unjust treatment of maidservants, as well as launching charitable work and distributing food to the poor. They also opposed the opium trade^[85] and brought treatment to many who were addicted. Some of the early leaders of the Chinese Republic, such as Sun Yat-sen were converts to Christianity and were influenced by its teachings^[86].

The subject of China's Christian population is controversial. The government of the People's Republic of China census enumerated 4 million Roman Catholics and 10 million Protestants^[87][88]. However, independent estimates have ranged from 40 million to 54 million Christians in China as the most common and reliable numbers^[89][90][91]. Between 1949-2007, indigenous Chinese Christianity has been growing^[92][93]. Most of the growth has taken place in the unofficial Chinese house church movement.

See also: Protestantism in China, Catholicism in China, Chinese house church, and Persecution of Christians

[edit] Hinduism

Main article: Hinduism in China

It seems there are small communities of followers of Hinduism (called 印度教, Yindujiao) in China. In October 2007 the Chinese government has invited the BAPS, a Hindu missionary organization, to build the first Hindu temple in China, in the Foshan city.^[94] The temple will be built following the style of the Akshardham temple in Gandhinagar.^[95] The temple will provide a series of centers for study of Indian culture, Indian languages and Indian music.^[96]

The International Society for Krishna Consciousness states it has followers in China.^[97]

[edit] Judaism

Main article: Judaism in China

Judaism (called 犹太教, Youtaijiao in Chinese) was introduced during the Tang Dynasty (between the 7th and the 10th century) or earlier, by small groups of Jews settled in China. The most prominent early community was at Kaifeng, in Henan province (Kaifeng Jews). In the 20th century, many Jews arrived in Hong Kong and Shanghai during those cities' periods of economic expansion in the first decades of the century, as well as for the purpose of seeking refuge from the Holocaust in Western Europe and from the communist revolution in Russia.

Shanghai was particularly notable for its volume of Jewish refugees, most of whom left after the war, the rest relocating prior to or immediately after the establishment of the People's Republic. Today, the Kaifeng Jewish community is functionally extinct. Many descendants of the Kaifeng community still live among the Chinese population, mostly unaware of their Jewish ancestry. Meanwhile, remnants of the later arrivals maintain communities in Shanghai and Hong Kong. In recent years a community has also developed in Beijing.

More recently, since the late 20th century, along with the study of religion in general, the study of Judaism and Jews in China as an academic subject has begun to blossom.

[edit] Indigenous religions

Main articles: Bön and Dongbaism

In China two notable indigenous religions have survived since modern times: Bon and Dongbaism.

Bon (called 苯教, Benjiao by the Chinese) is the oldest spiritual tradition of Tibet, dominant before the introduction of Buddhism. Bonpo religion is traditionally considered founded by the mythical figure of Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche. With the spread of Buddhism, Bon incorporated styles, iconography and clergy system of the new religion, whereas remaining a distinguished tradition. Simultaneously, Bonpo elements combined with original Buddhism gave origin to Tibetan Buddhism. Bon is essentially a psychologistic religion.

Dongbaism (東巴教, Dongbajiao in Chinese) is the primary religion of the Nakhi people. About two-thirds of today Nakhis (200.000 on 300.000) are Dongbas. Although it has remained exclusive to the Nakhis, Dongba religion is not considered native by scholars. Deep similarities between Dongba practices and the Bonpo ones seem to proof that Dongbaism arose roughly during the 11th or 12th century. Bonpos are considered to have settled among the Nakhis spreading their religion; Dongbaism eventually originated by the combination of Bon with Nakhi native beliefs. Elements drawn from Taoism are also identifiable. Dongbas worship nature, personified by human-snake-chimera creatures called Shv or Shu.

[edit] New movements

Main articles: Xiantianism and Falun Gong

During the centuries, many sect religions emerged in China. Between the 19th and the 20th century some new religious movements gained prominence, especially Xiantianism and Falun Gong. These religions are characterized by syncretic, messianic and millenarian attitudes. All these movements are currently banned in Mainland China due to their eventual involvement in political issues.

Xiantianism (先天道, Xiantiandao) is referred to have roots in the 13th century doctrine of the White Lotus. It was formally founded in the 17th century as a unified religion, but in 1828 it split into many sub-groups. Today, "Xiantianism" or "Way of Former Heaven" is an umbrella term that encompass many religions, namely Ikuantao, Tientism, Miledaism, Society of Goodness, Society of Celestial Virtue, Society of Compassion, Daoyuan and Haizetao. Xiantian religions claimed 5 million adherents before the crackdown in 1949. In 1987 Ikuantao was legalized in Taiwan, and further new sects arose in the following years. Today, Xiantians have gained notable prominence in the country. Ikuantaoists form the third largest religious community in Taiwan, while Tientists form the fifth.

Falun Gong (法轮功) is a mind-body cultivation system related to Buddhism and qigong, with ethic and millenarian aspects. It is sometimes described as a religion, a spirituality or a metaphysical system. It was spread by Li Hongzhi since 1992. A 1998 figure from the Chinese government suggests there were 70 million practitioners in China at that time.^[98] On July 20, 1999, the Chinese authorities banned^[99] and initiated a crackdown^[100] on Falun Gong.

[edit] Faded religions

[edit] Heaven worship

Main article: Heaven worship

The Heaven worship was the bureaucratic belief system subscribed to by most dynasties of China until the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. It was a panentheistic system, centering on the worship of Tian (the "Heaven") as an omnipotent force. This religious system predated Taoism, Confucian thought and the introduction of Buddhism and Christianity; its dogmas supported the basements of the imperial hierarchy.

It had monotheistic features in that Heaven was seen as an omniscient entity, endowed with personality but no corporeal form. Heaven as a monotheistic god was variously referred to as Shangdi (literally "Lord Above"). Worship of Heaven included the erection of temples, the last and greatest being the Temple of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. Heaven was believed to manifest itself through the powers of the weather and natural disasters. No iconographies were permitted in Heaven worship. Heaven was seen as a judge of humans. Especially evil people were believed to be killed by Heaven through lightning, with their crimes inscribed on their (burnt) spines.

After the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, Heaven monotheism faded in popular belief. However, some of its concepts remained in use throughout the premodern period. These concepts, often influenced heavily by Confucian theory, include the Mandate of Heaven, the Emperor's role as Son of Heaven, and the legitimate overthrow of a dynasty when its "mandate" ended. These structures actually consolidated the authority of the Emperor.

Emperors who favoured Taoism or Buddhism neglecting the worship of Heaven were often seen as anomalous. Elements were also incorporated in Chinese folk religion. Execution by lightning, for example, became one of the roles of the thunder gods. The concept of the almighty Heaven remained in popular expressions. Where an Anglophone would say "Oh my God" or "Thank God", a Chinese person might say "Oh Heaven" ("老天！" or "天哪！") or "Thank the heavens and the earth" ("謝天謝地").

[edit] Manichaeism

Main article: Manichaeism in China

Manichaeism (called 摩尼教, Monijiao), an Iranic religion, entered China between the 6th century and the 8th century due to contacts between the Tang Dynasty and states of Central Asia, particularly Tokharistan.^[101] In 731 a Manichaean priest was asked by the Chinese Emperor to realize a summary of the religion's teachings. He wrote the Compendium of the Teachings of Mani the Buddha of Light. The Tang government approved Manichaeism to be practiced by foreigners, but prohibited preaching among Chinese people.^[101]

A turning point occurred in 762 with the conversion of Bogu Khan of the Uyghurs.^[101] Since 755, the Chinese Empire had been weakened by the An Shi Rebellion, and the Uyghurs had become the only fighting force serving the Tang Dynasty. Bogu Khan encouraged Manichaeism to spread in China. Manichaean temples were established in the two capitals, Chang'an and Luoyang, as well as in several other cities in the Northern and Central China.^[101]

The decay of Uyghur power in 840 brought to the closure of many Manichaean institutions.^[101] Emperor Wuzong of Tang started the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution, which was not exclusively against Buddhism but extended to all foreign religions. The religion was severely suppressed, but didn't died out. During the period of the Five Dynasties it re-emerged as a popular underground phenomenon, particularly in Southern China.^[101]

In 1120 a rebellion led by Fang Xi was believed to be caused by adherents of underground religious communities, which meeting places were said to host political protests. This event brought to crackdown of unauthorized religious congregations and destruction of scriptures. In 1280 the Mongol rule gave a century freedom to Manichaeism^[101], but in 1368 the Ming Dynasty started new persecutions.^[101] The religion gradually collapsed, eventually dying out during the following centuries.

[edit] Zoroastrianism

Main article: Zoroastrianism in China

Zoroastrianism (called 琐罗亚斯德教, Suoluoyasidejiao, or 祆教, Xianjiao) expanded in Northern China during the 6th century via the Silk Road. It gained a status of officiality in some Chinese regions. Zoroastrian fire temples have been found in Kaifeng and Zhenjiang. According to some scholars they remained active until the 12th century, when the religion started to fade from Chinese landscape.

[edit] Controversy

Nonetheless, many estimates have been made. According to the Chinese government, as of February, 2006 there were "over 100 million followers of various faiths" in China.^[102] According to the 1993 edition of The Atlas of Religion, the number of atheists in China is between 10 and 14 percent.^[103] Additionally, the BBC reported in February, 2007 that "a poll of 4,500 people by Shanghai university professors found 31.4% of people above the age of 16 considered themselves as religious,"^[104] a figure that represents 300 million people. Among those surveyed, about 2/3 were "Buddhists, Taoists or worshipers of legendary figures such as the Dragon King and God of Fortune." Other religions represented significantly in that survey were Christianity (12%) and Islam. China is also known to have small numbers of people who follow Hinduism, Dongbaism, Bon, and a number of new religions and sects (particularly Xiantianism and Falun Gong). The official China Daily called the Shanghai professors's research "the country's first major survey on religious beliefs."^[105] The wide disparity among these estimates underscores the difficulty of accurately surveying the religious view of a nation of over a billion people and the lack of reliable data.

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

• De Groot, J.J.M. (Jan Jakob Maria), "The Religious System of China: Its Ancient Forms, Evolution, History and Present Aspect, Manners, Customs and Social Institutions Connected Therewith", Brill Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands, 1892-1910. In six volumes.
• Manchao, Cheng, "The Origin of Chinese Deities", Foreign Languages Press, Beijing, 1995. ISBN 7-119-00030-6
• Paper, Jordan, "The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion", SUNY Press, 2111
• Austin, Alvyn (2007). China’s Millions: The China Inland Mission and Late Qing Society. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-2975-7. 
• Burgess, Alan (1957). The Small Woman. ISBN 1568491840. 
• Gulick, Edward V. (1975). Peter Parker and the Opening of China. Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 95, No. 3 (Jul. - Sep., 1975). 
• Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1929). A History of Christian Missions in China. 
• Spence, Jonathan D. (1991). The Search for modern China. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393307808. 
• Soong, Irma Tam (1997). Sun Yat-sen's Christian Schooling in Hawai'i. Hawai'i: The Hawaiian Journal of History, vol. 13. 
• Zürcher, E. The Buddhist Conquest of China. (E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1972)
• Yang, CK., Religion in Chinese Society (California U. Press, 1970)