Sexism
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Sexism is a belief or attitude that one gender or sex is inferior to or less valuable than the other and can also refer to a hatred or distrust towards either sex as a whole (see also misogyny and misandry), or creating stereotypes of masculinity for men or femininity for women.[1]. It is also called male and female chauvinism.
Sexism can refer also to any and all systemic differentiations based on the gender of a person, not based on their individual merits. In some circumstances this type of sexism may constitute sex discrimination, which in some forms is illegal in some countries.
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[edit] Generalization and partition
Sexist beliefs, as a part of essentialism, holds that individuals can be understood or judged based primarily on the characteristics of the group to which they belong—in this case, their sexual group, as men or women. This assumes that all individuals fit into the category of male or female and does not take into account intersexed people who are born with a mixture of male and female sexual characteristics. This also assumes a significant degree of homogeneity in the characteristics of men and women respectively, and generally does not take into account the differences that exist within these groups. XY males and XX females who are genetically one sex but have developed the characteristics of the opposite sex during the foetal stage are usually considered with respect to their phenotypes under this system[2].
Certain forms of sexual discrimination are illegal in many countries, but nearly all countries have laws that give special rights, privileges, or responsibilities to one sex or two sexes[3].
| sex | condition of | hatred | fears | discriminatory | anti-discriminatory |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| discrimination of | movement of | ||||
| female ♀ | femininity | misogyny | gynophobia | gynocentrism | feminism |
| male ♂ | masculinity | misandry | androphobia | androcentrism | masculism |
| intersex | intersexuality | misandrogyny | androgynophobia | LGBTIQ | |
| transsex | transsexuality | transphobia | LGBT | ||
[edit] Sexism against women
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For more details on this topic, see Chauvinism.
The term 'sexism' is most commonly applied to sexism against women, and when expressed by a man is often called male chauvinism.[citation needed] Related terms are misogyny and gynophobia, which refer to the hatred and fear of women or femininity.
Historically, in many patriarchal societies, women have been and are viewed as the "weaker sex". Women's lower status can be seen in cases in which women were not even recognized as persons under the law of the land. The feminist movement promotes women's rights to end sexism against women by addressing issues such as equality under the law, political representation of women, access to education and employment, women victims of domestic violence, self-ownership of a woman's body, and the impact of pornography on women.[4][5]
[edit] Sexism against men
The view that women are superior to men is also a form of sexism, and when expressed by a woman can be called female chauvinism. Androphobia, on the other hand, refers to the fear of men or masculinity.
Sexism against men has been referred to as "reverse sexism." Suedfeld criticizes this label, stating that discrimination against men is sexism, and that the reverse of discrimination is non-discrimination.[6]
In The War Against Boys, Christina Hoff Sommers analyzes the gender gap in education using studies that show that by twelfth grade, "males are four times as likely as females not to do homework."[7] Sommers argues that this gender gap is troubling and that it is not being addressed due to institutionalized sexist attitudes towards men.[7] Canadian authors Nathanson and Young have also claimed that the modern feminist movement has contributed to sexism against men.[8] [9]
Glenn Sacks, an American men's and fathers' issues columnist and radio broadcaster, initiated a campaign in 2003 against T-shirts carrying the slogan "Boys are stupid, throw rocks at them!". He claimed that these T-shirts were part of a general societal mood that stigmatizes and victimizes boys.[10] The company that produced the shirts claimed that they were meant only to be humorous.[11] The campaign against the line received support from several men's rights groups, such as the National Coalition of Free Men, but also from groups with broader agendas, such as the Southern Poverty Law Center.[12] Many critics of the T-shirts pointed out that similar slogans directed against girls or ethnic groups would be widely regarded as unacceptable. The Canadian Children's Rights Council termed the slogan hate speech.[13] The campaign led to the removal of the shirts from more than 3,000 retail outlets. The slogan has also been criticized by Bernard Goldberg in his book, 100 People Who Are Screwing Up America, where Todd Goldman, the shirts' creator, was listed as number 97.[citation needed]
According to Nathanson and Young, one form of feminism they call "ideological feminism" is chauvinistic as well as misandric. They assert that this form of feminism alleges "directly or indirectly that women are superior to men," and that its supporters often claim that "women are psychologically, morally, spiritually, intellectually, and biologically superior to men".[14]
Wendy McElroy refers to male stereotyping when she claims that in some gender feminist views, all men are considered irreconcilable rapists, wife-beating brutes, and useless as partners or fathers to women.[15] McElroy and Camille Paglia claim that gender feminists view women as innocent victims who never make irresponsible or morally questionable choices.[16] Other feminists such as Kate Fillion have questioned the idea that women are always innocent victims and men always the guilty victimizers when the interests of each collide with those of the other.[17]
On the other hand, Ariel Levy uses the term in another sense in the title of her book, Female Chauvinist Pigs. She claims that many young women in the United States are replicating male chauvinism and sexist stereotypes about women in their embrace of what she labels "raunch culture" and traditionally masculine attributes. These women she designates female chauvinist pigs. [18]
In 1997, the Canadian Advertising Foundation ruled that a National Ad campaign that featuring Nicole Brown Simpson's sister Denise with the slogan, "Stop violence against Women" was in fact portraying only men as aggressors, and that it was not providing a balanced message and was in fact contributing to gender stereotyping. (The murder of Nicole Simpson also included the murder of Ronald Goldman)[19]
[edit] Sexism against transsexuals
Transsexuality (also known as transgender) is a complex condition that is defined differently by different people.[citation needed] Transphobia refers to discrimination against transsexuality and transsexual or transgender people, based on their personal gender identification (see Phobia - terms indicating prejudice or class discrimination). Whether intentional or not, transphobia can have severe consequences for the person the object of the negative attitude. The LGBT movement has campaigned against sexism against transsexuals. The most typical forms of sexism against transsexuals are how many "women-only" and "men-only" events and organizations have been criticized for rejecting transfemales, and transmales respectively.[citation needed]
[edit] Sexism and sexual expression
The expression of sexual intimacy is a part of the human condition. However, various aspects of human sexuality have been argued as having contributed to sexism.
[edit] The Sexual Revolution
During the sexual revolution, there was a change in the cultural perception of sexual morality and sexual behavior. The sexual revolution has been known as the sexual liberation by feminists since some saw this new development in the West as a leveling ground for females to have as many choices concerning their sexuality as males--hoping to eliminate the problematic virgin/whore dichotomy of traditional Western society.
Modern feminists like Ariel Levy have warned that the current state of commercial sexuality has created a "Raunch Culture"[citation needed]. This cultural development, (which has largely occurred in the West) the commercialization of the sexual objectification of women, has been criticized as being limiting for men and women. Rather than being liberating, some feminists argue that the "pornification" of Western society has reduced and equated the scope of feminine power to sexual power only. Some feminists argue that women are themselves objectifying other women by becoming producers and promoters of the "Raunch Culture".
Some masculist theorists posit that prior to the sexual revolution the idealized male was expected to be virile while the idealized female was expected to be modest. They note that after the sexual revolution, women were given more liberty to express virility while the reverse has not been true for men, who have yet to be given a choice to be non-virile. They argued that the dual identity of hypersexuality and asexuality is a luxury and special status that only exists for women. However, many feminists believe that this dual identity rather allows men to condemn a women for her sexuality for being either modest or virile (see double standard).
[edit] Pornography
Some individuals express the view that pornography is contributing to sexism, arguing that in usual pornographic performances for male spectators the actresses are sexually objectified. They state that the narrative is usually formed around men's pleasure as the only goal of sexual activity. The German feminist Alice Schwarzer is one representative of this point of view. She has brought this topic up repeatedly since the 1970s, in particular in the feminist magazine Emma. The reverse, where female spectators are objectifying male actors, has also been identified as sexism.
On the other hand, some famous pornographic actresses such as Teresa Orlowski and Tímea Vágvölgyi have publicly stated that they do not feel themselves to be victims of sexism against women. In fact, many female pornographic stars and sex-positive feminists view pornography to be progressive, since they are paid money for performing consensual acts, and also since many directors and managers of the industry are women as well. Porn positive feminists often support their position by pointing out the situation of women in countries with strict pornography laws (e.g., Saudi Arabia) versus women in countries with liberal pornography laws (e.g., the Netherlands). Many opponents of pornography believe that pornography gives a distorted view of men and women's bodies, as well as the actual sexual act, often showing the performers with synthetic implants or exaggerated expressions of pleasure. Some opponents believe pornographic films tend to show women in particular as being extremely passive, or that the acts women perform are degrading and solely for the pleasure of their sexual partner, and that this is evidence of sexism.
[edit] Occupational sexism
Occupational sexism refers to any discriminatory practices, statements, actions, etc. based on a person's sex that are present or occur in a place of employment. One form of occupational sexism is wage discrimination, which is prohibited in the US.[20]
[edit] Sexual discrimination
- See also: Discrimination
Though sexism refers to beliefs and attitudes in relation to the gender of a person, such beliefs and attitudes are of a social nature and do not, normally, carry any legal consequences. Sex discrimination, on the other hand, may have legal consequences. Though what constitutes sex discrimination varies between countries, the essence is that it is an adverse action taken by one person against another person that would not have occurred had the person been of another sex. Discrimination of that nature in certain enumerated circumstances is illegal in many countries.
Sexual discrimination can arise in different contexts. For instance an employee may be discriminated against by being asked discriminatory questions during a job interview, or because an employer did not hire, promote or wrongfully terminated an employee based on his or her gender, or employers pay unequally based on gender. In an educational setting there could be claims that a student was excluded from an educational institution, program, opportunity, loan, student group, or scholarship due to his or her gender. In the housing setting there could be claims that a person was refused negotiations on seeking a house, contracting/leasing a house or getting a loan based on his or her gender. Another setting where there have been claims of gender discrimination is banking; for example if one is refused credit or is offered unequal loan terms based on one’s gender.[citation needed]
Socially, sexual differences have been used to justify different roles for men and women, in some cases giving rise to claims of primary and secondary roles.[citation needed] While there are non-physical differences between men and women, there is little agreement as to what those differences are.[citation needed]
The United Nations had concluded that women often experience a "glass ceiling" and that there are no societies in which women enjoy the same opportunities as men.[citation needed]
The term "glass ceiling" is used to describe a perceived barrier to advancement in employment based on discrimination, especially sex discrimination. In the United States, the Glass Ceiling Commission, a government-funded group, stated: "Over half of all Master’s degrees are now awarded to women, yet 95 percent of senior-level managers, of the top Fortune 1000 industrial and 500 service companies are men. Of them, 97 percent are white." In its report, it recommended affirmative action, which is the consideration of an employee's gender and race in hiring and promotion decisions, as a means to end this form of discrimination.[21]
Transgendered individuals, both male to female and female to male, often experience problems which often lead to dismissals, underachievement, difficulty in finding a job, social isolation, and, occasionally, violent attacks against them.
[edit] See also
- Chauvinism
- Equal Pay Act
- Gender Egalitarianism
- Gender role
- Intersectionality
- LGBT stereotypes
- Misandry
- Misogyny
- Occupational sexism
- Sexual harassment
- Sex in advertising
- Stereotype
- Triple oppression
[edit] References
- ^ Brittan, Arthur (1984). Sexism, racism and oppression. Blackwell, 236. ISBN 9780855206748.
- ^ "What is AIS?" AISSG. 13 Sep 2006. http://www.medhelp.org/www/ais/21_overview.htm
- ^ Neuwirth, Jessica. "Unequal-A Global Perspective on Women Under the Law." Ms. Magazine. 2004. http://www.msmagazine.com/summer2004/globalwomenlaw.asp
- ^ Bell, Linda A., 'Introduction' in Overcoming Racism and Sexism (eds) Linda A. Bell and David Blumenfeld (Rowman & Littlefield, 1995), ISBN 9780847680312
- ^ Holland, J: "Misogyny: The World's Oldest Prejudice," pp. 12-13. Avalon Publishing Group, 2006
- ^ Monroe, Kristen R (2002). Political Psychology. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 321. ISBN 0805838864. “Part IV, Chapter 17: Postmodernism, Identity Politics, and Other Political Influences in Political Psychology, by Peter Suedfeld. "Although the 'reverse sexism' (or racism) label is widely used, what it refers to is not 'reverse' anything. Discrimination against men is sexist, and against Whites, racist, just as discrimination against women and Blacks is sexist and racist. The real reverse of discrimination is nondiscrimination." (p.321, footnote)”
- ^ a b Hoff Sommers, Christina, The War Against Boys (Simon & Schuster) ISBN 9780684849577
- ^ Hoff Sommers, Christina (1994). The War against Boys: How Misguided Feminism Is Harming Our Young Men. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9780671794248.
- ^ Nathanson, Paul, Young, Katherine R (2001). Spreading Misandry: The Teaching of Contempt for Men in Popular Culture. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 9780773530997. “One specific group of people is identified as the threatening source of all suffering and another as the promising source of all healing. There is nothing new about this theory; only the names have changed." (p.7)”
- ^ Glenn Sacks' blog on the campaign, Final Update, 4 March, 2004.
- ^ Georgie Binks. 'The mean T-shirt: From the Stupid Factory'. The National Post 29 May, 2004.
- ^ Dana Williams. 'Clothing Designer Misses Point of 'Girl Power"'. Tolerance.org. 23 January, 2004.
- ^ Canadian Children's Rights Council. 'Hate Crime Complaint filed with Toronto police'. Commentary. 9 March, 2004.
- ^ Paul Nathanson and Katherine K. Young, Spreading Misandry: The Teaching of Contempt for Men in Popular Culture, p.[specify]
- ^ Wendy McElroy, Sexual Correctness: The Gender-Feminist Attack on Women, p.[specify]
- ^ Guests: Camille Paglia & Christina Hoff Sommers Has Feminism Gone Too Far? Think Tank With Ben Wattenberg - aired: 4 Nov 1994 accessed 6 Jan 2006
- ^ Kate Fillion, Lip Service: The Truth About Women's Darker Side in Love, Sex and Friendship
- ^ Female Chauvinist Pigs: Women and the Rise of Raunch Culture, Ariel Levy, 2006, ISBN 0743284283
- ^ The Power of One, Pamela Bron, Chronicle-Journal, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada, April 18, 1997, p. B1
- ^ The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Facts About Compensation Discrimination. Retrieved on 2008-04-23.
- ^ A Solid Investment: Making Full Use of the Nation's Human Capital (1995-11). Retrieved on 2008-05-23.
[edit] External links
- National Organisation of Men Against Sexism NOMAS, USA
- Sexism and Sexuality in advertising
- Reverse Sexism Rears its Ugly Head
- Middle Sex
- Father Phobia of the Family Court
- Father's Day Lament
- Federal and California Sex Discrimination Laws
- Hate Crimes: Criminal Law & Identity Politics
- When It Happens To Men
- Gender Bias and Fairness. ERIC Digest.
- A law lecture in mp3 format (part 1, part 2, and part 3) on gender discrimination and U.S. constitutional law
- Equal Pay Act - Actual Text
- Gender Discrimination Law in the United States
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