Sḵwx̱wú7mesh

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Part of the series on Skwxwú7mesh-ulh

General information

• People
  
• Nation
  
• Language
  
• History
  
• Society
  
• Law
  
• Economy
  
• Governance
  
• Culture
  
• Art
  
• Music
  
• Ceremonies and events
  
• Spirituality
  

Villages

Eslha7an
Xwemelch'stn
Xwáýxway
Senakw
Schenks
Chekwelhp
Chiyakmesh
St'a7mes

The Sḵwxwú7mesh^{[1][2][3][4][5]}pronunciation (help·info) (IPA: [sqʷχʷúʔməʃ]) or Squamish are an Indigenous nation, part of the Salishan-speaking people of southwestern British Columbia. When translated, Sḵwxwú7mesh renders into the people of the sacred water, referencing what they believe is the water in their territory and its spiritual healing properties. Their main communities are near the town of Squamish, British Columbia and at the mouths of the Capilano River, Mosquito Creek, and Seymour Creek on Burrard Inlet in North Vancouver, British Columbia. Their population is around 3,300 and rising.

For the past two centuries, Sḵwxwú7mesh have experienced oppression, displacement, and cultural assimilation attempts with a series of attempts at conquering by the Canadian government and foreign Settlers. This was ushered through the theft of land, displacement from economic resources, and resulted in cultural identity and language loss. Through all of this, they have maintained strong ties to their culture, and are currently engaged in many cultural revivial initiatives. Sḵwxwú7mesh territory expands into parts of the Lower Mainland and Sea to Sky corridor. Historically patrilineal, their complex culture includes large extended family protocols, rich spiritual practices, customs and traditions. Like many indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, the potlatch plays a central part of cultural life in winter months.

The geography of their territory is a heavy influence on Sḵwxwú7mesh culture. Being primarily an ocean-based people, historically their main transportation was cedar dug out canoes carved by stone chisels and knives. Their art practices include wool weaving from dog and mountain goat, cedar bark basketry, wood carving, ceremonial and celebratory singing and dancing. The design practice employed in their carving of spindle whorls, house posts, welcome figures, and other cedar medium based arts were apart of the Coast Salish art style. Music is covered by ceremonies in mask dances, spiritual events, and in celebratory events such as canoe welcoming of neighboring nations. Instruments include different types of drums, rattles, and wood-carved clappers. Their spiritual practices involved a complex animist dualism. The Sḵwxwú7mesh traditional diet is mostly seafood (salmon is still an important staple food) and a mixture of plants and berries, along with game such as elk, deer, and bear. A seafood-based diet (including salmon, crab, urchin, seal, and sea lion) required them to be resourceful: a common Sḵwxwú7mesh proverb states, "When the tide goes out, dinner is served."

[edit] History

Main article: Squamish history

Sḵwxwú7mesh elder woman spinning wool on spindle-whorl c. 1893

[edit] Oral tradition

Oral tradition transmits history, literature, law and other knowledges across generations without a writing system, and forms the basis for most of their history. The passing on of this history is regarded as the "responsible duty of responsible elders"^[6] making those who possessed the knowledge, were regarded as aristocrats. Like other Northwest Coast indigenous people, they have stories of the "Transformer" brothers who went around the world transforming things and people.^[7] Other stories transmitted through generations are of ancestral characters doing things or involved in events. It is also important to know that the oral tradition and history is continued to be passed on in this form, and events are still recorded through oral tradition.

[edit] Pre-contact

During the 1770s, smallpox (variola major) eradicated at least 30 percent of the indigenous population on the Northwest coast of North America, including many Skwxwu7mesh. This disease was one of the most deadly that hit the region over the next 80 to 100 years. During the 80 year period from the 1770s to 1850, smallpox, measles, influenza, and other diseases had killed many villages and communities. In oral histories that survived, describes the 1770s epidemic. An "aged informant" of the Sḵwxwú7mesh, in the 1890s, related the history of a catastrophic illness to ethnographer Charles Hill-Tout. He wrote:

“[A] dreadful misfortune befell them. … One salmon season the fish were found to be covered with running sores and blotches, which rendered them unfit for food. As the people depended very largely upon these salmon for their winter’s food supply, they were obliged to catch and cure them as best they could, and store them away for food. They put off eating them till no other food was available, and then began a terrible time of sickness and distress. A dreadful skin disease, loathsome to look upon, broke out upon all alike. None were spared. Men, women, and children sickened, took the disease and died in agony by hundreds, so that when the spring arrived and fresh food was procurable, there was scarcely a person left of all their numbers to get it. Camp after camp, village after village, was left desolate. The remains of which, said the old man, in answer by my queries on this, are found today in the old camp sites or midden-heaps over which the forest has been growing for so many generations. Little by little the remnant left by the disease grew into a nation again, and when the first white men sailed up the Squamish in their big boats, the tribe was strong and numerous again”^[8]

The epidemic of the 1770s was the first and the most devastating more to follow. During the next few decades other damaging outbreaks would attack this area. A smallpox epidemic in 1800-1801, influenza in 1836-1837, measles in 1847-1848, smallpox again in 1862.

[edit] Colonization

In 1906, Joe Capilano traveled with Cowichan Chief Charley Isipaymilt and Secwepemc Chief Basil David to London to seek an audience with King Edward VII.

In 1791, with Spanish Captain Jose Maria Narvaez and British Captain George Vancouver, first contact was made between the Sḵwxwú7mesh and Europeans. European expansion during the fur-trade, gold rush, and subsequent colonization policies by the Canadian government ushered a new way of life and place for the Sḵwxwú7mesh. In the early history of Vancouver, these people were the majority, but in a manner of a few years, they quickly fell to a small minority, both because of more diseases, displacement from land, and rising European and Asian populations.

In the early 1800s, the Hudsons Bay Company's Fort Langley was the first major trader. During this time, much trade went on between the people and Fort Langley. In 1858-59 the Fraser Gold Rush brought in more foreign settlers to their territory, but most major settlement didn't begin until after the Canadian Pacific Railway was completed bring more foreigners from eastern Canada. During the time of construction of the railway, the treaty process by the Canadian government was attempting to settle land issues across the Prarires, but in 1867 the Indian Act was passed, and in the Joint Indian Reserve Commiision, plots of land or Indian reserves, were cordoned designating the native population to specific area's, managed and control by Indian Agents from the Department of Northern and Indian Affairs. At the time, numerous reserves were plotted out from already existing village sites, and then assigned or ratified chiefs over these reserves.

During this time some reserve lands were sold off from the respective families and chiefs, both illegally and legally. One instance was the case of Kitsilano Indian Reserve, the location of which was Senakw, where portions of the reserve were expropriated, both in 1886, and again in 1902.^[9] Families were forced into leaving, and promised pay for the "sale". The families that lived in the village were placed on a barge and sent out to sea, with the intent for them to move up to the Squamish River area. ^[10] It wasn't until 1923 when the reserve chiefs amalgamated into becoming the singular Squamish Band to manage all reserves.

In 1906, a delegation of chiefs from British Columbia, traveled to London to seek an audience with King Edward VII regarding the land confiscated by the government of Canada with the reserve system. Joe Capilano traveled with Cowichan Chief Charley Isipaymilt and Secwepemc Chief Basil David, but their requests to see the King were denied.

[edit] Assimilation and discrimination

Sḵwxwú7mesh have experienced oppression, displacement, and cultural assimilation attempts with a series of attempts at conquering by the Canadian government and foreign Settlers. This was ushered through the theft of land, displacement from economic resources, and resulted in cultural identity and language loss. Through all of this, they have held on strong ties to their cultural and currently engage in many cultural revivial initiatives.

[edit] Geography

The vegetation of their homeland is a dense temperate rain forest, formed up of conifers with a spread of maple and alder, as well as large areas of swampland.^[11][12] The trees are typical coast British Columbia mix of Douglas-fir, Western red cedar and Western Hemlock;^[13]. The largest trees of old growth forest were around the Burrard Inlet and around the slopes of Senakw and present day False Creek area. This abundance in natural resources fueled their affluent culture.

Howe Sound was an area heavily populated with villages and resource gathering sites.

Their territory Sḵwxwú7mesh extends over 673,540 hectares. On the southern part, it includes the Indian Arm, along Burrard Inlet, through False Creek then English Bay and Point Grey serving as the border southward. From here, it moved northward to Roberts Creek on the Sunshine Coast, up the Howe Sound. Then the northern part included the Squamish, Cheakamus, Elaho and Mamquam Rivers. Up the Cheakamus River it included land past Whistler, British Columbia.

Sḵwxwú7mesh territory also overlaps with the territories of neighboring indigenous peoples. Their land was situated on shared territory between Xwméthkwyiem, Tseil-waututh, Shishalh, and Lil'wat (main southern branch of the St'at'imc). In their language, the Tseil-waututh are Sel’it’wetulh, the Shishalh are the Shishá7lh, the Xwméthkwyiem are Xwmets'kwiyam, and the Lil'wat are Lúxwels. Roberts Creek, on the Sunshine Coast, is considered the boarder with the Shishalh. They are culturally similar, but politically different from their kin, the Tseil-waututh. A large portion of Sḵwxwú7mesh territory is shared with the Lil'wat. Through family inter-marriage and the land rights that sometimes came with it, many places for resource gathering were shared.

Vancouver and adjacent municipalities are located within their territory, making the Sḵwxwú7mesh one of the few indigenous peoples in Canada to have communities near or in metropolitan area's. Of the 673,540 km, currently 0.4230% of this is reserve land allotted to the Squamish Nation. It is on these reserves that most of the current communities exist.

[edit] Villages

Sḵwx̱wú7mesh are populated in villages through out their territory. Historically they lived in numerous villages through the Burrard Inlet, Howe Sound, and Squamish region, but current live on 7 different villages. The rest are all historical sites and considered "village-sites." Historically each village was populated by numerous longhouses, with the longhouse being home to many families. One house in the village of Xwáýxway was recorded in 1880s at being 60 meters long and near 20 meters wide, and 11 families were said to live in the house. This is considered quite large. The size of villages varied from a handful of houses to large communities with dozens of houses. The largest villages were along the Burrard Inlet, False Creek, Howe Sound, and Squamish River.

Pre-contact times they also sometimes had multiple village sites for living. During the winter months, they would travel up river, and in the sumer months, come down for economic resources to be gathered. There were exceptions to this with some villages being occupied through out the whole year. These camp sites proved valuable for resources, like food or mineral deposits, and multiple families with travel to these places. Other camp sites were safe havens in time of need if weather did not permit travel on the water because of rough waters.

Below is a list of villages, both present and past, their reserve designation, and other information.

[edit] Society

[edit] Governance

The leadership is grouped with each family having a siyam, which translates to, a highly respected person. This person would act in the best interest of his family, and make decision based on the group consensus of the family he represented, or best described as "...the best talker - not chairman, (our people) have no chairman -- but man who says the most wise things".^[14] Then through potlatching, his status among the villages, and other Indigenous nations, would rise in respect based on how many characteristics of a noble person. These characteristics would be humbleness, respect, generosity, and wisdom. The wealth of these individuals, and their family, is based on how resources they give away, not how much they collect.

[edit] Social structure

The Skwxu7mesh class structure is similar to other Coast Salish. Unlike European class strucutre, characterized as a pyramid, Sḵwxwú7mesh classes were structured in a manner similar to an inverted pear. Nobility, aristocrats, and the like were the most populated, with commons make a sizable but smaller portion of society compared to the nobility. The smallest group were slaves, held only by high ranking nobles.

The nobility was recognized by three ways; the amount of wealth distributed amongst the people, how much one or ones family emulates the values of the people, the knowledge through history, traditions, and culture and the sharing of those, and knowledge of skills, whether practical or spiritual.

The distribution of wealth was the most regarded and most practiced by high ranking and wealthy families. This distribution of wealth takes place with the potlatching or through the display of values celebrated in the culture such as generosity, humbleness and respect. Some families come from nobility because of connection to spiritual powers or ceremonialism. Shamans, prophets and medicine doctors were also considered nobility because of the training and expertise they possessed. Some jobs or positions, taken up by members of the community, also signified members of this class. These jobs and positions would be things related to the mountain goat, like hunting and weaving of mountain goat wool blankets. Before contact commoners or slaves could rise through the ranks to one day also become nobility through this system.

In emulating the values of the culture, of respect for each other, wisdom or knowledge to be passed on in teachings, and generosity of ones own wealth. In Western concepts of wealth, the poor are regarded by those who have nothing. Andy Paull noted, "It was the duty of the more responsible Indians to see that the history and traditions of our race were properly anded down to posterity. A knowledge of our history and legends was similar as an education is regarded among whitemen. Those who possessed it were regarded as aristocrats. Those were indifferent, whether adults or children, were rascals. Being without means of transmitting it into writing, much time was spent by the aristocrats in importing this knowledge to the youth. It was the responsible duty of responsible elders."^[15]

A practice historically done by Sḵwxwú7mesh was a custom called flat-foreheading. Infants heads would be placed in a wooden bust model of his head and shoulders to transform the shape of their head int something more "flat". This would a sign of nobility and considered attractive. The last Sḵwxwú7mesh to do this practice was Tim Moody. ^[16]

[edit] Law

[edit] Property

In Sḵwxwú7mesh society, many things are considered property which are not in European societies. This included names, stories, ceremonies, and songs. These notions of property are similar to those considered under modern intellectual property law. Other property included fishing spots and hunting trap lines, as well ass berry patches, canoes, and works of art. Through this, rights to places to hunt, fish, or gather food, could be added in marriage with people from other villages or nations. Names are property of a somewhat different kind. Names, given to a young person after going through rites of passage, would most likely be taken from a deceased ancestor of the same family. Before given this name, children would be given nick names or pet names which would hold until they attained a ancestral name. These names are considered important as many have been passed down through generations. It is through this that only blood connection to the ancestor can names be passed down. Places and resources are also considered property, though in a much less clearly defined way than is found in the European legal tradition. Locations typically did not carry clearly drawn bounded lines, although sometimes certain landmarks serve as boundary markers. Ownership of places is usually correlated with a valuable resource in that location rather than overt physical characteristics. Usually the resources in question are food sources, such as salmon streams, herring spawning grounds, berry patches, and fishing holes.

[edit] Family and kinship

The Sḵwxwú7mesh kinship is based on a loose patrilineal structure, with large extended families and communal village life. Numerous villages populated the territory, with each village holding many longhouses. Each longhouse was a community in itself, with a number of related families living in the same home. The number of families varied with size of the house. During the warmer and gathering seasons, there would be numerous fires within each house for each family. During the winter season, one fire was used for ceremonies and spiritual work taking place in the house.

Historically, marriage would occur through either arranged marriage, or the groom proposing to the father of the prospecting wife. If a father endorsed the marriage, he would invite the groom into his house after a trial conducted on the young man. Polygamy was also practiced, but only the most wealthy individuals would practice this.

[edit] Culture

A number of Sḵwxwú7mesh sitting together at village of Senakw. One man in the photograph was a shaman and refused to have his photograph taken so his image is scratched out.

[edit] Ceremonies and events

In Sḵwxwú7mesh culture, ceremonies, events and festivals were the highly of community life. Ranging from community gathers in feasts, to spiritual endeavours in ceremony, these events were a big part of the culture. The most studied and practiced event was the potlatch. It is important to note that a Sḵwxwú7mesh potlatch differed quite differently from the Northern tribes and their festivities. In a Sḵwxwú7mesh potlatch, a large feast is held and the community, nation, or neighboring nations are invited to partake. Highly wealthy families and individuals host these potlatch for different events taking place, and to distribute the resources and wealth accumulated. A potlatch would usually occur around events such as birth, coming of age, naming ceremony, marriage, or memorial event for the diseased. It is in the winter months that most potlatching take places, where historically summer was used for traveling and harvesting.

At a potlatch, in their language a tl'e7enk, the host would invite guests to feast in foods prepared and harvested. Blankets would be bought or made, then distributed to guests. At the events, the host would hire a speaker to speak for the family in the proceedings. For special potlatches, a special platform would be constructed, around 10 or 15 feet high, 5 feet wide, where the host and his speaker would pile a number of blankets, either bought or made by the hosts own family, and distribute the blankets to the guest. The speaker would call out names of guests, usually highly respected or high ranking, taking a blanket and throwing it out for that guest. Typically a crowd would amass below, ready for the falling blankets, waiting for it to fall. While the blanket came down, the other guests would have knives and spears ready to tear apart the blanket. Thus, the blanket would be torn and split up into multiple pieces. After attended a few potlatches, the guests would procure enough wool to construct their own blanket.^[17]"Hundred Dollar Charlie," maternal gradfather to Andy Paull, reportedly gave the last potlatch on Burrard Inlet before it was banned by the Canadian government in 1885.

In other ceremonies, a young woman, sometimes the daughter of a highly respected man, would be placed on top of a mound of blankets. This mound would match her hight. Sitting on top of the blankets, a ceremony would take place around here, while she sat on top of and her family nearby. During some ceremonies, people situated around the house would take wooden batons and beat on plank drums situated through the house. When a young girl would stand up, she would dance around the house with a shawl on, and everyone else would beat and sing. When she was done, one man would take down, from duck, swan, or eagle, and sprinkle it over her.^[18]

For large festivities, a bigger house then the normal dwelling would be built. These are Potlatch Houses or tl'e7enkáẃtxw.^[19] One longhouse was measured at 200 feet long by 60 feet wide.^[20]These houses could hold over a thousand guests, invited from far along the coast. The house would be decorated would down, sprinkled through out the floor of the house.^[21] The longhouses in Xwemelch'stn is one of these types of houses. One potlatch was recorded at Xwáýxway in 1875. In the longhouse, a large cedar slab dwelling, a large ceremony with guests of people from nearby nations, Vancouver Island, and the Interior British Columbia. This potlatch was hosted by August Jack's father, named Supple Jack.^[22]

[edit] Language

Main article: Sḵwxwú7mesh language

The Sḵwxwú7mesh snichim, or Sḵwxwú7mesh language, is the ancestral language of the Sḵwx̱wú7mesh people. It's considered an important part of cultural revitalization. Although nearing language extinction, it's still used in ceremonies, events, and basic conversation among some. With the language dead, as in no children learning it as a first language and all language speakers over the age of 65, much work is being done to preserve and revitalize it. The language is part the Coast Salish linguistic group, and most closely related to Sháshíshálh (Sechelt), and Sḵ'emin'em (Halkomelem) and Xwsa7km,(Nowxs'a7aq). Many anthropologists and linguists have worked with Sḵwxwú7mesh people and their language including Franz Boas, Charles Hill-Tout, Homer Barnett, and Aert J. Kuipers.

Since the late 1800s the language has had a history. Before contact, it was the prominent language of all the villages, along with the Chinook Jargon. Most children would learn Chinook as a first language because it was so basic, then Sḵwxwú7mesh language as they become older. After the spread of diseases causing massive population drops and colonizations of their territory, the language became a minority language in their lands. When the Canadian government enforced an assimilationist policies regarding their culture and language, a Residential School were set up in the village of Eslha7an with children coming from many Skwxwu7mesh villages, plus some Church officials sending children to another school in Sechelt. The school, a home for many children 10 months out of the year, were forbade to speak their language. Any children speaking the language were punished and beaten. This cause a deep resentment about speaking the language, and so the next generation grew up without any knowledge of their native-tongue.

Over the years, English became the prominent language. Then during the 1960's, a great deal of documentation and work took place to help in the revitalization. The BC Language Project with Randy Bouchard and Dorthy Kennedy undertook more documentation and were the main collaborators on this project. They devised the present writing system that is used for the Sḵwxwú7mesh language. Eventually local Elementary and a High School included language classes as opposed to the normal French language option. A children's school called Xwemelch'stn Estimxwataxw School, meaning Xwmelch'stn Littleones School, with grades Kindergarden to 3, was built to assist in language immersion, with plans to expand it into a full immersion programed school. ^[23]

[edit] Transporation

Traditional sea-going dug out canoe carved from single cedar tree and Sḵwxwú7mesh men in Burrard Inlet.

Being a coastal people, the Sḵwxwú7mesh historically travelled either by foot or by canoe. Different styles of canoe existed for different types of water. Sea-going canoes, typically larger, would used on the open ocean. Smaller Inlet-style canoes, used in calmer waters and shorter travel to nearby villages or neighboring people. Cargo-canoes were also made for trading large amounts of goods. The main way or transportation was through canoe pulling. Intricate paths and trails were developed to trade with interior nations more inland.

[edit] Food and cuisine

An elder, by the name of Sekwaliya, cooking salmon on open fire and cedar carved cooking sticks. Circa 1940

[edit] Nutrition

The Sḵwxwú7mesh diet was similar to other indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast. It was considerably heavy on natural fats and oils through sea food, particularly salmon. This left relatively small amounts of carbohydrates in the diet. To ensure that essentials vitamins are acquired, the indigenous peoples eat almost all parts of animals which they harvest. Bones used for soup stock provide leached calcium, as do ground calcined shells. Vitamin A is obtained from liver. Vitamin C is primarily found in berries and some other plants, such as skunk cabbage leaves. Bone marrow provides valuable iron and vitamin D.^{[citation needed]} Intestines and stomachs can be eaten to provide vitamin E and the vitamin B complexes.

Recent shifts away from a traditional diet, relatively low in carbs and sugar has led to a pletora of health problems in the present day Sḵwxwú7mesh community. Diabetes and cholesterol run high compared to North American averages.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Salmon

As the most important food staple, salmon had esteemed respect within Sḵwxwú7mesh culture. At a yearly springtime Thanksgiving Ceremony or First Salmon Ceremony, specially prepared fish was made for community gatherings. After the community feasted, they would follow a time-honored ritual as they returned the bones to the water. A story recounts how the salmon come to the Sḵwxwú7mesh people; the salmon have their own world, and an island far out in the ocean. They appear every year to sacrifice themselves to feed the people, but the people asked that after the people are done with them, they return the salmon bones back to the ocean so they can come back.

Salmon was caught using a variety of methods, the most common being the fishing weir. These traps allowed skilled hunters to easily spear a good amount of fish with little effort. Fish weirs were regularly used on the Cheakamus River, which takes its name from the village of Chiyakmesh. This translates into People of the Fish Weir, denoting the weir utilized in this area. This method of fishing required extensive cooperation between the men fishing and the women on the shore doing the cleaning.

In the past, salmon would be roasted over fires and eaten fresh, or dried for preservation. Using smoke over alder or hemlock fires preserved salmon so it could be stored for up two years. It could be soaked in water and prepared for eating. Over time, this evolved into a method preserving salmon through canning. Canned salmon are jarred or pickled, then stored for winter months.

[edit] Notable Sḵwxwú7mesh

• August Jack Khatsahlano
• Joe Capilano
• Harriet Nahanee
• Andy Paull

[edit] See also

• Coast Salish
• Coast Salish languages
• Squamish Nation
• Sḵwxwú7mesh language

[edit] Footnotes

[edit] Bibliography

• Barman, Jean. Stanley Park's Secrets. Habour Publishing, 2005. ISBN 978155074205.
• Mathews, Major J.S. Conversations with Khahtsahlano, 1932-1954. Out-of-Print, 1955. ASIN: B0007K39O2.
• Clark, Ella E. Indian Legends of the Pacific Northwest. University of California Press, 2003. ISBN 0520239261.
• Hill-tout, Charles. "Salish People: Volume II: the Squamish and the Lillooet". Talonbooks, 1978. ISBN 0889221499
• Efron, Sarah. Squamish Speakers Keep Language Alive. Georgia Straight. Retrieved January, 28th, 2008.
• First Heritage Archaeological Consulting Squamish Traditional Study - Retrieved April 15, 2008

[edit] External links

• Squamish Nation
• The Uts'am Witness project