Republic of Ragusa

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Respublica Ragusina (la) Dubrovačka Republika (hr) Repubblica di Ragusa (it) Republic of Ragusa¹ Republic and protectorate (or tributary) of Byzantium, then Venice, then Hungary, then the Habsburgs and Ottomans ← 1032 – 1808 → Coat of arms Borders of the Republic of Ragusa, from 1426 Capital Ragusa (Dubrovnik) 42°39′N, 18°04′E Language(s) Latin (official until 1472), Dalmatian, Croatian, Ragusan Italian Religion Roman Catholic Government Republic Duke  - 1808 Auguste Marmont Historical era Renaissance  - City established ca 614  - Established 1032  - Fourth Crusade     (Venetian invasion)   1205  - Treaty of Zadar June 27, 1358  - Ottoman tributary from 1458  - Joint protectorate from 1684  - Invasion by France January 31, 1808  - Annexed by France October 14, 1808 Area  - 1808 (?) 1,500 km² (579 sq mi) Population  - 1808 (?) est. 30,000       Density 20 /km²  (51.8 /sq mi) Currency Ragusa Ducat 1: Generally, the republic is referred to as Ragusa in English, though the name Republic of Dubrovnik is increasing in popularity, particularly since the 1991 re-establishment of Croatian independence.

The Republic of Ragusa (or Republic of Dubrovnik) was a maritime republic centred on the city of Ragusa (Dubrovnik, today in southernmost Croatia), in Dalmatia, from the 14th century AD until 1808. It reached its peak in the 15th and 16th century before being conquered by Napoleon Bonaparte's Empire of France in 1808. It had a population of about 30,000 people, of which 5,000 lived within the city walls.^[1]

Contents 1 Names 2 Territory 3 History 3.1 Origins 3.2 Early centuries 3.3 Venetian suzerainty (1205–1358) 3.4 Independence from Venice (1358) 3.5 Ottoman suzerainty 3.6 Decline of the Republic 3.7 End of the Republic 4 Government of the Republic of Ragusa 4.1 Governing Doctrine 4.2 Patrician families 5 Relations between the nobility 5.1 Other non patrician families 6 Languages 6.1 Official languages 6.2 Vernacular languages 7 Ragusan literature 8 Ethnicity 9 Notable Ragusans 9.1 14th century 9.2 15th century 9.3 16th century 9.4 17th century 9.5 18th century 10 See also 11 References 12 External links

[edit] Names

Originally named Communitas Ragusina (Latin for "Ragusan municipality" or "community"), in the 14th century it was renamed Respublica Ragusina (Latin for "Ragusan Republic"). In Croatian, it is called Dubrovačka Republika. It city is also known in English as Ragusa; the latter name was rarely used in older English sources, as the city was internationally known as Ragusa at that time.

The Croat (Slavic) name "Dubrovnik" is derived from the Slavic word dubrava, an oak wood;^[2], by a strange perversion, the Turks have corrupted into Dobro-Venedik, Good-Venice. it came into use beside "Ragusa" as early as the 14th century.^[3] The Latin and Dalmatian name Ragusa derives its name from Lausa (from the Greek ξαυ: xau, "precipice"); it was later altered in Rausium (Appendini says that until after AD 1100, the sea passed over the site of modern Ragusa, if so, it could only have been over a small part of it) or Rausia (even Lavusa, Labusa, Raugia and Rachusa) and finally into Ragusa.

[edit] Territory

The Republic ruled a compact area of southern Dalmatia - its final borders were formed by 1426^[4] - comprising the mainland coast from Neum to the Prevlaka peninsula as well as the Pelješac peninsula and the islands of Lastovo and Mljet, as well as a number of smaller islands off Lastovo and Dubrovnik such as Koločep, Lopud, and Šipan.
In the 15 th century the Ragusian republic also acquired the islands of Korcula, Brac and Hvar for about eight years. However they had to be given up due to the resistance of local minor aristocrats sympathizing with Venice which was granting them some privileges.

[edit] History

See also: History of Dubrovnik

History of Dalmatia

Dalmatae

Dalmatia (Roman province)

Pagania

Republic of Ragusa

Republic of Poljica

Illyrian provinces

Kingdom of Dalmatia

Littoral Banovina

[edit] Origins

The city was established in 7th century^[5] (circa 614) after Avar and Slavic raiders destroyed the Roman city of Epidaurum (today Cavtat, in Croatia). Some of the survivors moved 25 kilometers north to a small island near the coast where they founded a new settlement, Lausa. It has been claimed that a second raid by Croats in 656, resulted in the total destruction of Epidaurum.^[5]

According to another theory Epidaurum was destroyed a first time in AD 265 by the Goths and "Rausium (or Ragusa) probably was founded long before Epidaurus was finally destroyed, and that the various irruptions of barbarians, in the third and succeeding centuries, had led to the original establishment of this place of refuge".^[2]

The new location offered more protection, but the native Roman population quickly established trade and political relations with the Slavic hinterland.

The refugees from Roman Epidaurum built their new settlement on the small island (some sources say peninsula) of Lausa off the shore while other populations (primarily Slavs) settled along the coast, directly across the narrow channel, and named their settlement Dubrovnik. Initially the populations were skeptical of each other. Over time they grew closer and finally in 12th century the two settlements merged. The channel that divided the city was filled creating the present day main street (the famous Stradun) which became the city center. Thus, Dubrovnik became the Slavic name for the united town.

[edit] Early centuries

The Saracens laid siege to Dubrovnik in 866 and 867, which lasted for fifteen months and was raised due to the intervention of the Byzantine Emperor, Basil the Macedonian, with his fleet.^[6] With the weakening of Byzantium, Venice began to see Ragusa as a rival which needed to be brought under her control, but the attempt to conquer the city in 948 failed. The citizens of the city attributed this to Saint Blaise (Croatian: Sveti Vlaho) whom they adopted as the patron saint. ^[7] In 1050, the city acquired the harbor of Gruž and extended its boundaries to Zaton, 16 km north of the original city by the grant of Stephen who claimed the title of ruler of Bosnia and Dalmatia.^[7]

In the 11th century, Dubrovnik and surroundings were described in the work famous Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi. In his work, he mentioned Dubrovnik as the "southernmost city of country of Croatia". ^[8]

In 1191, the city's merchants were granted the right to trade freely in Byzantium by Emperor Isaac II Angelos. Similar privileges were obtained several years earlier from Serbia (1186) and from Bosnia (1189). The treaty with Bosnian Ban Kulin is also the first official document where the city is referred to as Dubrovnik.^[4]

[edit] Venetian suzerainty (1205–1358)

When, in 1205, the Republic of Venice invaded Dalmatia with the forces of the Fourth Crusade, Ragusa was forced to pay a tribute and became a source of supplies for Venice (hides, wax, silver and other metals). Venice used the city as its naval base in the southern Adriatic Sea. Unlike with Zadar, there was not much friction between Ragusa and Venice as the city had not yet begun to compete as an alternate carrier in the trade between East and West; in addition, the city retained most of its independence. The people, however, resented the ever growing tribute and an almost epic hatred between Ragusa and Venice began to grow.^[9]

In the middle of the thirteenth century the island of Lastovo was added to the original territory. Then in 1333, the Pelješac Peninsula was purchased from Serbia^[4] with the blessing of Bosnia; the island of Mljet was acquired in 1345.^[7] In January 1348, the Black Death visited the city.^[10]

[edit] Independence from Venice (1358)

After Venice was forced in 1358, by the Treaty of Zadar, to yield all claim to Dalmatia, the city accepted the mild hegemony of King Louis I of Hungary. On June 27, 1358, the final agreement was reached at Visegrád between Louis and the Archbishop Ivan Saraka. The city recognized Hungarian sovereignty, but the local nobility continued to rule with little interference from Buda. The Republic profited from the suzerainty of Louis of Hungary, whose kingdom was not a naval power, and with whom they would have little conflict of interest.^[11] The last Venetian rector was sent home packing, apparently in a hurry.^[12] The Ragusian aristocracy sent him home firmly but politely. At the same time and in the same place, the emissaries from the Republic took an oath that they'll hoist Croatian flags on the islands and on the mainland ^[8].

In 1399, the city acquired the area between Ragusa and Pelješac, called the Primorje. Moreover, between 1419 and 1426, the Konavle region south of Astarea, including the city of Cavtat, were added to the territories in the possession of the city.^[4] In the first half of 15th century, the notable Cardinal Ivan Stojković (self-designated as Johannes de Carvatia) was active in Dubrovnik as Church reformer and writer.

[edit] Ottoman suzerainty

In 1458, the Republic signed a treaty with the Ottoman Empire which made it a tributary of the Sultan. Moreover, it was obliged to send an ambassador to Istanbul by November 1 of each year in order to deliver the tribute. ^[13]

When in 1481 the city passed under Ottoman protection, it was to pay an increased tribute of 12,500 ducats. For all other purposes, however, Ragusa was virtually independent. It could enter into relations with foreign powers and make treaties with them, and its ships sailed under its own flag. Ottoman vassalage also conferred special rights in trade that extended within the Empire. Ragusa handled the Adriatic trade on behalf of the Ottomans, and its merchants received special tax exemptions and trading benefits from the Porte. It also operated colonies that enjoyed extraterritorial rights in major Ottoman cities. ^[14]

Merchants from Ragusa could enter the Black Sea which was otherwise closed to non-Ottoman shipping. They paid less in customs duties than other foreign merchants, and the city-state enjoyed diplomatic support from the Ottoman administration in trade disputes with the Venetians.^[15]

For their part, Ottomans regarded Ragusa as a port of major importance. After all, most of the traffic between Florence and Bursa (an Ottoman port in northwestern Anatolia) was carried out via Ragusa. Florentine cargoes would leave the Italian ports of Pesaro, Fano or Ancona to reach Ragusa. From that point on they would take the land route Bosnasaray (Sarajevo)–Novibazar–Skopje–Plovdiv–Edirne.^[16]

When in the late 16th century, Ragusa placed its merchant marine at the disposal of the Spanish Empire, on condition that its participation in the Spanish military ventures would not affect the interest of the Ottoman Empire, the latter tolerated the situation as the trade of Ragusa permitted the importation of goods from states with which the Ottoman Empire was at war.^[15]

Along with England, Spain and Genoa, Ragusa was one of the Venice's most damaging competitors in the 15th century on all seas, even in the Adriatic. Thanks to its proximity to the inexhaustible oak forests of Gargano, it was able to bid cargoes away from the Venetians.^[17]

[edit] Decline of the Republic

With the great Portuguese explorations which opened up new ocean routes, the spice trade no longer went through the Mediterranean sea. Moreover, the discovery of America started a crisis of Mediterranean shipping. That was the beginning of the decline of both the Venetian and Ragusan Republics.

Charles VIII of France granted trading rights to the Ragusans in 1497. These rights were also granted by Louis XII in 1502. In the first decade of the 16th century, Ragusan consuls were in France while their French counterparts were sent to Ragusa. Prominent Ragusans were in France during this period and include such dignitaries as Simon Bonesa, Lovro Gigants, D. Bondić/Bonda, Ivan Cvletković, Captain Ivan Florio, Petar Lukarić/Luccari, Serafin Gucetić/Gozze, Luka Sorkočević/Sorgo. The Ragusan aristocracy was also well represented at the Sorbonne University in Paris at this time. Croatian Regiments were in French service in the 1600s and were called by Louis XIII's to be the Royal-Cravates (Croats). Because these soldiers wore a colorful scarf around their neck to distinguish themselves, this neck wear became known as cravats or ties.

On 6 April 1667, a powerful earthquake struck, and killed over 5,000 citizens, including the Prince (in Croatian: Knez, in Italian: Doge) Simon Getaldić/Ghetaldi, and leveled most of the public buildings, leaving only the outer walls intact. Buildings in the Gothic and Renaissance styles — palaces, churches and monasteries — were in ruins, only the Sponza Palace and the front of the Rector's Palace at Luza Square survived. Gradually, the city was rebuilt in the more modest Baroque style. With great effort Ragusa recovered a bit, but still remained a shadow of the former Republic.

In 1677, Marin Kabudžič/Caboga (*1630)*[2] and Nikola Bunić/Bona arrived to Istanbul to attempt the aversion of the danger that was menacing Ragusa: Kara-Mustafa's pretentions for the annexation of Ragusa to the Ottoman Empire. The Grand-Vizier, struck with the capacity Marin showed in the arts of persuation, and acquainted with his resources in active life, resolved to deprive his country of so able a diplomat, and on the 13th of December he was imprisoned, where he was to remain for several years. In 1683, Kara-Mustafa was killed in the attacks on Vienna, and Marin was soon free to return to Ragusa.

The fate of Ragusa was linked to that of the Ottoman Empire. Ragusa and Venice lent technical assistance to the Ottoman–Egyptian–Calicut–Gujarati alliance that was defeated by the Portuguese in the battle of Diu in the Indian Ocean (1509).

In 1684, the emissaries renewed an agreement contracted in Višegrad in the year 1358 and accepted the sovereignty of the Austrian Emperor over Ragusa as a Croatian-Hungarian King, with an annual tax of 500 ducats. At the same time Ragusa continued to recognize the sovereignty of Turkey; which was nothing unusual in those days. After this even greater opportunities opened up for Ragusa ships in ports all along the Dalmatian coast, in which they anchored frequently.

In 1683 the Turks were defeated in the Battle of Kahlenberg outside Vienna. The Field marshal of the Austrian army was Ragusan Frano Dživo Gundulić/Gondola. In the Treaty of Karlowitz of 1699, the Ottomans ceded all of Hungary, Transylvania, Slavonia, Dalmatia and Podolia to the victorious Habsburgs, Venetians, and Poles.

The Ottoman Empire was no longer a threat to Christian Europe. After this, Venice captured a part of Ragusa's inland area and approached its borders. They presented the threat of completely surrounding and cutting off Ragusa's trade inland. In view of this danger and anticipating the defeat of the Turks in 1684 Ragusa sent emissaries to the Austrian Emperor Leopold in Vienna, hoping that the Austrian Army would capture Bosnia. Fortunately for the Republic, the Ottomans retained their control over their hinterland. With the 26 January 1699 peace agreement, the Republic of Ragusa ceded two patches of its coast to the Ottoman Empire so that the Republic of Venice would be unable to attack from land, only from the sea. One of them, the northwestern land border with the small town of Neum, is today the only outlet of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Adriatic Sea. The southeastern border village of Sutorina later became part of Montenegro, which has coastline to the south. Ragusa continued its policy of strict neutrality in the War of Austrian succession (1741–48) and in the Seven Years' War (1756–63).

In 1783 the Ragusan Council did not answer the proposition put forward by their diplomatic representative in Paris, Frano Favi, that they should establish diplomatic relations with the USA. Although the Americans agreed to allow Ragusan ships free passage in their ports.

[edit] End of the Republic

Around the year 1800, the Republic had a highly organized network of consulates and consular offices in more than eighty cities and ports around the world. In 1806, the Republic surrendered to forces of the Empire of France to end a months-long siege by the Russian fleets (during which 3,000 cannonballs fell on the city). The French lifted the siege and saved Ragusa. The French army, led by Napoleon, entered Dubrovnik in 1806. In 1808, Marshal Marmont abolished the Republic of Ragusa and amalgamated its territory into the French Illyrian Provinces, himself becoming the "Duke of Ragusa" (Duc de Raguse). Later, in the 1814 Battle of Paris, Marmont abandoned Napoleon and was branded a traitor. The word ragusade was coined in French to signify treason and raguser meant a cheat.

The Ragusan nobility were disunited in their ideas and political behavior. Article 44 of the 1811 Decree abolished the centuries-old institution of fideicommissum in inheritance law, by which the French enabled younger noblemen to participate in that part of the family inheritance, which the former law had deprived them of. The annulment of fideicommissum struck at the Antonnio Degl’Ivellio. According to a 1813 inventory of the Dubrovnik district, 451 land proprietors were registered, including ecclesiastical institutions and the commune.

Although there is no evidence of the size of the estates, the nobles, undoubtedly, were in possession of most of the land. Eleven members of the Sorkočević/Sorgo family, eight of Gučetić/Gozze, six of Getaldić/Ghetaldi, six of Pucić/Pozza, four of Zamanjić (Džamanjić)/Zamagna and three members of the Saraka/Saraca family were among the greatest landowners. Ragusan citizens belonging to the confraternities St. Anthony and St. Lazarus owned considerable land outside the City. Regardless of the events taking place in the City, Todor Milutinović and Montrichard settled the French surrender of the City under honorable terms. With the aim of avoiding greater conflict, the Austrians agreed to the French conditions. General Todor Milutinović promised that the victorious army would not march into the city before the last Frenchman was evacuated from the City by ship.

On 27 January, the French capitulation was signed in Gruž and ratified the same day. It was then that Blaž Filip Kabudžić/Caboga openly sided with the Austrians, dismissing the rebel army in Konavle. Meanwhile, Ivan Natali and his men were still waiting outside the Ploče Gates. After almost eight years of occupation, the French troops marched out of Ragusa on January 27 and 28 January 1814. On the afternoon of 28 January 1814, the Austrian and English troops made their way into the city through the Pile Gates, denying admission to the Ragusan rebels. Intoxicated by success, and with Blaž Filip Kabudžić/Caboga’s support, Milutinović ignored the Gruž agreement he had made with the nobility in Gruž. The events which followed can be best epitomized in the so-called flag episode.

The Flags of Saint Blaise were posted alongside the Austrian and British colors, but only for two days, because on 30 January, General Milutinović ordered Mayor Giorgi to lower it. Overwhelmed by a feeling of deep patriotic pride, Giorgi, the last rector of the Republic and a loyal francophile, refused to do so "jer da ga je pripeo puk" ("for the masses had posted it"). The oncoming events proved that Austria took every possible chance of invading the entire coast of the eastern Adriatic, from Venice to Kotor. The allies did everything in their power to eliminate the Ragusa issue at the Vienna Congress of 1815. The Dubrovnik representative, Miho Bunić/Bona, was denied participation in the Congress, while Milutinović, prior to the final agreement of the allies, assumed complete control of the city.

In his 1908 book, "The Fall of Dubrovnik" ("Pad Dubrovnika"), Lujo Vojnović makes every effort to justify the popular actions and prove the solidarity of all social groups in achieving their common goal to restore the Republic. The records, however, seem to indicate a different situation. There was in fact lit-tle understanding between the nobility, the bourgeoisie, and the peasantry, and slim chances of these groups of having any common basis for further activities. The three groups had different reasons to be dissatisfied with the French government, and the moment when they rejoiced together over their victory was not strong enough to unite all the segments of Dubrovnik society in a struggle to restore the Republic. After Ragusa suffered a political breakdown, it was brought to the verge of economic ruin, and was foresaken by the international community, the City and its territories were handed over to the Habsburg Monarchy in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna. In 1814, led by general Todor Milutinović, the Austrian army marched into Dubrovnik. With them came the British army and the local insurgents against the French occupation. At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Ragusa was made a part of the crown land of the Kingdom of Dalmatia, ruled by Austria-Hungary, which it remained a part of until 1918.

In 1815, nobles of the former Ragusan Government met for the last time with their efforts to reestablish the Republic of Ragusa eventually failing. After the fall of the Republic most of the aristocracy died out or emigrated overseas, just around one fifth of the noble families were recognized by the Austrian empire. Some of the families that were recognized and survived were Getaldić-Gundulić/Gondola, Gucić, Kabužić/Caboga, Sorkočević/Sorgo, Zlatarić/Slatarich, Zamanjić (Džamanjić)/Zamagna, and Pucić/Pozza.

The Greater Council met for the last time on 29 August 1814. The attending senators were the following ones, with their names written in Italian rendering:

Orsato Savino, conte di Ragnina; Niccolo Matteo di Gradi; Niccolo Niccolo di Pozza, Clemente, conte di Menze, Marino Domenico, conte di Zlatarich, Wladislao, conte di Sorgo; M. Conte di Cerva, Niccolo conte di Saracca; Pietro Ignazio di Sorgo-Cerva; Paolo Wladislao, conte di Gozze; Nicollo Gio, conte di Sorgo, Matteo Nicollo di Ghetaldi; Savino conte di Giorgi; Pietro Giovanni conte di Sorgo; Marino Nicollo conte di Sorgo, Sebastiano di Gradi; Matteo Niccolo di Pozza; Segismondo di Ghetaldi; Niccolo Luigi conte di Pozza; Wladislao Paolo conte di Gozze, Marino di Bona; Marco Niccolo conte di Pozza; Giovanni conti di Gozze, Francesco conte di Zamagna; Matteo Niccolo conte di Sorgo; Carlo conte di Natali, Orsato conte di Cerva, Matteo Conte di Cerva, , Niccolo conte di Giorgi; Segismondo conte di Sorgo; Biagio M. Di Caboga; Conte Giovani di Menze; Niccolo Matteo di Sorgo; B.D di Ghetaldi; Gio Biagio, conte di Caboga; Marino Matteo di Pozza, conte di Sagorio, Luca Antonio conte di Sorgo; conte di Giorgi Bona; Giovanni conte di Sorgo; Giovanni conte di Natali, Antonio Luca conte di Sorgo, Rafaelle Giovanni conte di Gozze; Natale Paolo conte di Saraca; natale Conte di Ghetaldi.

[edit] Government of the Republic of Ragusa

The Republican Constitution of Ragusa was strictly aristocratic. The population was divided into three classes: nobility, citizens, and artisans or plebeians. All effective power was concentrated in the hands of aristocracy. The citizens were permitted to hold only minor offices, while plebeians had no voice in government. Marriage between members of different classes of the society was forbidden.

The organization of the government was based on the Venetian model: the administrative bodies were the Grand Council (supreme governing body) and the Small Council (executive power) (from 1238) and the Senate (from 1253). The head of the state was the Duke, elected for a term of office for one month.

Grand Council (Consilium Maior) consisted of exclusively members of the aristocracy; every noble took his seat at the age of 18. Every year, 11 members of the Small Council (Consilium minus) were elected. Together with a duke, the Small Council had both executive and representative functions. The main power was in the hands of the Senate (Consilium rogatorum) which had 45 members elected for one year. This organization prevented any single family, unlike the Medici in Florence, from prevailing. Nevertheless the historians agree that the Sorgo family was all the time among the most influential

Small Council (Consilium Minor) consisted first of 11 members and after 1667 of seven. The Small Council was elected by the Rector. The Senate was added in 1235 as a consultative body. It consisted of 45 invited members (over 40 years of age). While the Republic was under the rule of Venice the Rector was Venetian, but after 1358 the Rector was always a person from the Republic or Ragusa. The length of the Rector's service was only one month and a person was eligible for reelection after two years. The rector lived and worked in Rector's Palace but his family remained living in their own house. The government of the Republic was liberal in character and early showed its concern for justice and humanitarian principles, e.g. slave trading was abolished in 1418.

The government of the Republic was liberal in character and early showed its concern for justice and humanitarian principles. The Republic's flag had the word Libertas (freedom) on it, and the entrance to the Saint Lorenz fortress (Lovrijenac) just outside the Ragusa city walls bears the inscription "Non bene pro toto libertas venditur auro, meaning "liberty is not for sale for any amount of gold." The Republic imposed some restrictions on the slave trade in 1416. However, the Republic was a staunch opponent of the Eastern Orthodox Church and only Roman Catholics could acquire Ragusan citizenship.

[edit] Governing Doctrine

Ragusa prospered free in that world because its ruling families' governing doctrines were based on its unique culture. Nikola Vito Gučetić/Gozze, who served seven times as the rector of Ragusa, in his Dello Stato delle Republiche (Venice, l591) he lists 222 governing rules; the following are typical:

It is better that a republic be governed by laws than by men.
A prince by election is better than one by succession.
Citizens of moderate means better love their Princes and country than the rich, who refuse to have anyone above them.
To govern a republic, it is best to imitate the great god of nature, who does everything little by little, almost unobserved.

Above the door of the Senate chamber in the Prince's palace stands engraved "Obliti privatorum publica curate"(Forget private interests as you manage public ones"). So until 1806, the republic had only three monuments to Ragusans. A stone tablet on the Municipal building honors Nikola Bunić/Bona, Ragusa's ambassador to Istanbul, who in l678 died in prison for "our country's freedom" rather than to surrender to the Sultan's demands. In the Prince's palace, there is the l638 statue of Miho Pracat, a merchant and generous benefactor of Ragusa. The third individual rewarded with a monument is Ruđer Bošković. With "the consent of the Senate", a large marble table was placed in the cathedral a few months after his death in 1787, praising his scientific achievements and "his help to the Republic"; he left at age 15, 'promoting its interests', including in intelligence."

Talleyrand, France's foreign minister, defined Ragusa's govrning policy (1806) as "Too weak to defend itself, Ragusa always looked for foreign protectors". Its system consisted of bending to the will of the strong and passing through political events without participating in them." In I servizi Segreti di Venezia (1994) P. Preto describes Ragusa as "Door to the Orient for Christians, to the West for the Turks; faithful daughter of the Roman church, and friend of Catholic Spain; vassal of the Sultan, impartial distributor of news to friends and enemies, and "doublespy" of the Turks and Christians." Ragusa's policy was "to have no friends or enemies, only its own interests." (Lord Palmerston,19th century.) Thus, P. Ricault, in his History of the Ottoman Empire (l670) described Ragusa as "a follower of seven flags". The alleged saying "non siamo Christiani non siamo Giudei, ma poveri Ragusei" ("We're not Christians, we're not Jews, but poor Ragusans") is probably a Venetian invention.

In the wars and conflicts among its neighboring powers, Ragusa remained totally neutral. The best example of this is the 1571 Battle of Lepanto, where Ragusan boats served on both sides. History records that "Ragusa defended itself by diplomacy." But Ragusa's diplomacy took unusual forms; consider these written instructions by the Ragusa government (1568) to its ambassadors heading to Istanbul: "When the pasha tells you that the Sultan wants to increase our tribute, fall on your knees, pour tears, and with most humble words beg him to desist, for we have always been his good servant." But the Ambassadors were also instructed to give the pasha a bribe of 5,000 ducats to support their tearful pleas.

[edit] Patrician families

The city was ruled by aristocracy, and marriage between members of three different social classes was strictly forbidden. The nominal head of state was the Duke, while during the period of Venetian suzerainty the rector (rettore) held considerable influence. Real power, however, was in the hands of three councils that were held by the nobility.

The Ragusan Archives document, "Speculum Maioris Consilii Rectores", lists all the persons that were involved in the Republic's government between September 1440 to June 1860. There were 4397 rectors elected; 2764 (63%) were from "old patrician" families: Gucić/Gozze, Bunić/Bona, Kabužić/Caboga, Crijević/Cerva, Gundulić/Gondola, Getaldić/Ghetaldi, Đorđić/Georgi, Gradić/Gradi, Pucić/Pozza, Saraka/Saraca, Sorkočrvić/Sorgo, and Zamanjić (Džamanjić)/Zamagna.

• in 17th century, 50% of the dukes and senators were from the following families: Bunić/Bona, Gundulić/Gondola, Gucić/Goze, Menčetić/Menze, Sorkočević/Sorgo.
• in 18th century, 56% of senators were from these families: Sorkočević/Sorgo, Gucić/Goze, Zamanjić (Džamanjić)/Zamagna, Kabužić/Caboga, Đorđić/Georgi.
• in the last eight years of the Republic, 50% of dukes were from the Sorkočević/Sorgo, Gucić/Goze, Gradić/Gradi, Bunić/Bona, or Ranjina/Ragnina families.

A big problem of Ragusan noble families was also that because of the decrease of their numbers and lack of noble families in the neighborhood (the surroundings of Dubrovnik was under Turkish control) they were becoming more and more closely related, the marriages between relatives of the 3rd and 4th degree were frequent.

An 1802 list of Dubrovnik Republic's governing bodies showed that six of the eight Small Council and 15 of the 20 Great Council members were from the same 11 families.

The Ragusan aristocracy^[18] evolved in the 12th century through the 14th century. It was finally established by statute in 1332. New families were accepted only after the earthquake in 1667. In the Republic of Ragusa all political power was owned by noble males older than 18 years. They were formed the Great Council (Consilium majus) which had the legislative function. Every year, 11 members of the Small Council (Consilium minus) were elected. Together with the duke (who was elected for a period of one month) it had both executive and representative functions. The main power was in the hands of the Senate (Consilium rogatorum) which had 45 members elected for one year. This organization prevented any single family, unlike the de'Medici in Florence, from prevailing. Nevertheless the historians agree that the Sorgo family was consistently among the most influential.

Original patriciate:

• House of Basilio
• House of Bobavljević/Bobali
• House of Bunić/Bona
• House of Bondić/Bonda
• House of Kabužić/Caboga
• House of Crijević/Cerva
• House of Đorđić/Georgi
• House of Getaldić/Ghetaldi
• House of Gundulić/Gondola
• House of Gučetić/Gozze
• House of Gradić/Gradi
• House of Menčetić/Menze
• House of Lukarić/Lucari
• House of Pucić/Pozza
• House of Saraka/Saraca
• House of Tudizi
• House of Sorkočević/Sorgo
• House of Zamanjić (Džamanjić)/Zamagna

Families that joined the patriciate after the earthquake of 1667:

• House of Bosdari
• House of Bučić/Bucchia
• House of Natali
• House of Pauli
• House of Ranjina/Ragnina
• House of Reesti
• House of Zlatarić/Slatarich

[edit] Relations between the nobility

It is peculiar that the nobility survived even when the classes were divided by internal disputes. When Marmont arrived in Dubrovnik in 1808, the nobility was divided into two blocks, the “Salamanquinos” and the “Sorboneses”. These names alluded to certain controversy arisen from the wars between Charles V of Spain and Francis I of France, which happened some 250 years previously. It was in the 1667 earthquake that a great part of the nobles were annihilated, it was necessary for him to retain the control and so he did with the inclusion of certain plebians into noble class. To these the "salamanquinos", those in favor of Spanish absolutism, did not treat like equals; but the inclined "sorboneses", sided with the French and to a certain liberalism accepted them without reserves. Another factor that could have taken part in this conduct is that the "sorboneses" had been very decreased by the great earthquake and they did not want to lose their wealth and status. In any case, both sides retained their status and they seated together in the Council, but they did not maintain social relations and were not even greeteing each other in the streets; an inconvenient marriage between members of both groups was of so serious consequences as if it occurred between members of different classes. This social split was also reflected in the inferior layers: “The plebians, as well, were divided in the brotherhoods of Saint Antony and Saint Lazarus, who were so unfriendly in their relations as "salamnaquinos" and "sorboneses". But the nobility was always the essence of the Republic that always had to be defended from the neighboring empires — “first Hungary, soon Venice, later Turkey” — and that was structured for a reduced number of people, around the 33 original noble families from 15th century.

[edit] Other non patrician families

• House of Bošković

[edit] Languages

[edit] Official languages

The official language until 1472 was Latin. Later, the Senate of the Republic decided that the official language of the Republic would be the Ragusan dialect of the Romance Dalmatian language (as opposed to Slavic), and forbade the use of the Slavic language in Senatorial debate. There are several rather famous instances, though, in which the senators debated in Dalmatian and cursed and argued in Croatian during discussion. The gospari (the aristocracy) held on to their language for many a century, while it slowly disappeared.

[edit] Vernacular languages

Although Latin language was in official use, inhabitants of Republic were mostly native speakers of Croatian language (as confirmed by count Peter Alexeyevitch Tolstoi in 1698., when he noted In Dalmatia... Dubrovnikans....called themselves as Croats)^[8]
As a minority language, in the city existed community of Dalmatian language speakers.

The Italian language that was in use in the Republic was a Venetian dialect with Tuscan influences, that took root among the Dalmatian Romance-speaking merchant upper classes, as a result of Venetian influence ^[19].

[edit] Ragusan literature

The Ragusan literature in which Latin, Italian and Croatian languages coexisted blossomed in the 15th and 16th century.^[20]

According to Graubard "during the Renaissance era, Venetian-ruled Dalmatia and Ragusa gave birth to influential intellectuals - mostly minor aristocrats and clergymen, Jesuits especially - who kept alive the memory of Croatia and the Croatian language when they composed or translated plays and books from Italian and Latin into the vernacular. No matter that the dialects of Dalmatia and Dubrovnik were different from each other [...] and both these dialects were somewhat different from the dialect of Zagreb, capital of the Hapsburg-ruled north. They still thought of it as Croatian. [...] The Dubrovnik poet Dominko Zlatarić (1555-1610) explained on the frontispiece of his 1597 translation of Sophocles' tragedy Elektra and Tasso's Aminta that it had been "iz veće tudieh jezika u Hrvacki izlozene," "translated from the great foreign languages in Croatian."^[21]

Croatian language was normally used among lower classes, Italian in the upper. Ragusans were in general bilingual speaking Croatian in common day to day duties and Italian in official occasions or mixing both. Literary works of famous Ragusans were written in both Croatian and Italian language.

Among them are the works of writers Džore Držić, Marin Držić, Ivan Bunić Vučić, Ignjat Đurđević, Ivan Gundulić, Šišmundo (Šiško) Menčetić, Dinko Ranjina; and following writers, beside others from 16th - 19th century (before the Age of Romantic National Awakenings) were explicit in declaring themselves as Croats and theirs language as Croatian : Vladislav Menčetić, Dominko (Dinko) Zlatarić (see above), Bernardin Pavlović, Mavro Vetranović, Nikola Nalješković, Junije Palmotić, Jakov Mikalja, Joakim Stulli, Marko Bruerović, Peter Ignaz Sorgo, Antun Sorkočević (1749 - 1826), Giovanni Francesco Sorgo (1706 - 1771).

The Croatian-language works from republic of Dubrovnik had a large role in the developing of Croatian literature, as well as modern Croatian standard language.

[edit] Ethnicity

Discussions about Ragusa's demographic structure often use the words Croatian or Italian to describe the Ragusan population during the republic. These discussions are mainly based on revised concepts which developed after the fall of the Republic; in particular, the time of Romantic Nationalism resulting from the French Revolution. Before this, states in general were not based on the contemporary unifying concepts such as nation, language or ethnicity. The attribution of a defining ethnicity is inappropriate: after the Middle Ages, the Republic had Croat population, while Dubrovnik had minorities of other ethnic origin (Romanized Illyrians, Italians, Greeks...).

[edit] Notable Ragusans

[edit] 14th century

• Franco Sacchetti (c.1335–1400) - poet and novelist

[edit] 15th century

• Benedetto Cotrugli (Benedikt Kotruljević) (1416 - 1469) - merchant, humanist, scientist and diplomat
• Džore Držić (Giorgio Darsa) (1461-1501) - poet and playwriter
• Bonino De' Bonini (Dobrić Dobričević) (1454-1528) - printer, publisher
• Mavro Vetranović (Mauro Vetrani) (1482/1483-1576) - Benedictine and writer
• Šiško Menčetić (Sigismondo Menze) (1457-1527) - poet, nobleman
• Elio Cerva (Ilija Crijević) (c. 1460 - 1520) - orator, lexicograph, poet

[edit] 16th century

• Savino de Bobali (Savko Bobaljević) (1530-1585) - writer
• Nikola Nalješković(Nicolaus de Nale) (1505-1587) - poet, playwriter and scientist
• Marin Držić (Marino Darsa) (1508-1567) - playwriter, poet
• Cvijeta Zuzorić (Fiore Zuzori) (1555-c.1600) - poetess
• Marin Getaldić (Marino Ghetaldi) (1568-1626), scientist, mathematician and physicist
• Ivan Bunić Vučić (Giovanni Serafino Bona) (1591-1658) - politician and poet
• Dominko (Dinko) Zlatarić (Domenico Slatarich) (1558-1613) - poet and translator
• Maria Gondola Gozze (Marija Gundulić Gučetić), poetess
• Nicolò Vito di Gozze (Nikola Vitov Gučetić) (1549-1610) - statesman, philosopher, scientist
• Ivan Gundulić (Giovanni Gondola) (1589-1638) - writer, poet, nobleman, statesman
• Dinko Ranjina (Domenico Ragnina) (1536–1607) - poet
• Trojan Gundulić - merchant, printer
• Mavro Orbini (Mauro Orbini) (mid-16th century -1614) - writer, ideologist and historian
• Luciano Ghetaldi - writer
• Natale Tudisi - writer
• Marino Costa - writer
• Niccolò Primi - writer
• Luca Sorgo - writer
• Giulia Bona - poetess
• Michele Monadi - writer

[edit] 17th century

• Vladislav Menčetić (1600/1617- 1666) - poet
• Giorgio Baglivi (Gjuro Baglivi) (1668-1707) - physician and researcher
• Junije Palmotić (Giustino Palmotta) (1607-1657) - writer, nobleman and dramatist
• Giovanni di Sigismondo Gondola (Ivan Šiškov Gundulić) (1677-1721),nobleman, poet
• Segismondo Gondola (Šišmundo [Šiško] Gundulić) (1634-1682), politician (Rector) poet, nobleman
• Bernardo Ghetaldi (Bernard Getaldic], clergyman, historian
• Stjepan Gradić (Stefano Gradi) (1613-1683) - philosopher and scientist
• Francesco Gondola (Frano Dživo Gundulić) (1630-1700) - nobleman, soldier, Austrian marshal
• Benedetto Rogacci (Benedikt Rogačić) (1646-1719) - Jesuit and poet
• Ignjat Đurđević (Ignazio Giorgi) (1675-1737) - poet and translator

[edit] 18th century

• Serafino Cerva (Serafin Crijević) (1696-1759) - historian and encyclopedist
• Sebastiano Dolci (Sebastijan Slade) (1699-1777) - writer and Franciscan
• Giovanni Francesco Sorgo (1706-1771) - writer, poet
• Raimondo Cunich (1719-1794) - writer and humanist
• Roger Joseph Boscovich (Ruđer Josip Bošković, Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich) (1711-1787) - physicist, astronomer, mathematician, philosopher, diplomat, poet and Jesuit
• Giorgio Ferrich (Djuro Ferić) (1739-1820) Jesuit, general-bicar
• Segismondo Ghetaldi-Gondola (Šiško Getaldić-Gundulić) (1795-1860) - politician, nobleman
• Biagio Ghetaldi (Vlaho Getaldić) (1788-1872) - nobleman, politician, poet
• Luca Stulli (1772-1828) scientist and physicians
• Antun Kaznačić(Antonio Casnacich) (1784-1874)writer
• Marc Bruère Desrivaux (Marko Bruerović) (1770-1823) - writer, diplomat, dramatist and nobleman
• Hieronimus Liubibratich de Trebinia (Jeronim Bratoljubić) (1716-1779) - nobleman, soldier (Austrian marshal)
• Giovanni Mane Giornovichi (Ivan Mane Jarnović) (1740-1804) - composer
• Bernardo Zamagna (1735-1820) - theologist,predicator, Jesuit and Dominican (also known as Brno Džamanjić)
• Giunio Resti (1755-1814) - politician, writer, nobleman
• Marco Faustino Gagliuffi (1765-1834), Latinist, Italian patriot. [3]
• Elena Pucić-Sorkočević (Elena Pozza-Sorgo) (1786-1865) - composer
• Pietro Ignazio Sorgo (Peter Ignaz Sorgo) (1749-1826) - nobleman, writer, poet
• Antun Sorkočević (Antonio Sorgo) (1775-1841) - diplomat, witer, composer
• Luka Sorkočević (Luca Sorgo) (1734-1789) - diplomat, composer
• Benedetto Stay (1714-1801) - Jesuit and theologian
• Joakim Stulli (Joakim Stulić) (1730-1817) - lexicographer and linguist
• Bernardin Pavlović - Franciscan, writer
• Antonio Aglich (-1830)
• Bernhard Caboga (1785-1855) - nobleman and soldier (Austrian marshal)

[edit] See also

• Dubrovnik
• Septinsular Republic
• Dubrovnik Highlands

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• Historical facts about Dubrovnik, from Dubrovnik Online
• Flags of Ragusa (Italian)
• Storia e monetazione di Ragusa, oggi Dubrovnik (Dalmazia) (Italian)
• Dalmatia and Montenegro by John Gardner Wilkinson, on Google Books
• Aus Dalmatien, by Ida Reinsberg-Düringsfeld (1857), on Google Books
• Universal Geography: Republic of Ragusa, on Google Books
• Bibliografia della Dalmazia e del Montenegro, by Giuseppe Valentinelli, on Google Books
• Bibliografia hrvatska, Ivan Kukuljević Sakcinski, on Google Books (Croatian)
• Geschichte des Freystaates Ragusa by Johann Christian von Engel, on Google Books (German)
• The Ethnology of Europe by Robert Gordon Latham, on Google Books
• Austria in 1848–49: Dalmatia by William Henry Stiles, on Google Books
• Ragusa, the American Revolution, and Diplomatic Relations, 1763–1783
• Francesico Favi, the Treaty of Paris of 1783, and Ragusan Commercial Trade with the United States
• Coins of Ragusa Republic