Renewable energy in the United States

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Renewable energy
Biofuels Biomass Geothermal Hydro power Solar power Tidal power Wave power Wind power

The current status of renewable energy in the United States varies considerably between different renewable energy technologies, with some being commercialized at the present time.^[1]

Wind power is a growing industry in the United States. Latest American Wind Energy Association figures show that installed U.S. wind power capacity now exceeds 16,800 MW which is enough to serve 4.5 million average households.^[2] Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development, followed by California.^[3]

Several solar thermal power stations, including the new 64 MW Nevada Solar One, have also been built. The largest of these solar thermal power stations is the SEGS group of plants in the Mojave Desert with a total generating capacity of 354 MW, making the system the largest solar plant of any kind in the world.^[4] The largest solar photovoltaic plant in the U.S. is the 14 MW Nellis Solar Power Plant, located near Las Vegas, Nevada, which is expected to produce more than 30 million kWh/year for Nellis Air Force Base.^[5]

In terms of renewable fuels for transportation, most cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol fuel, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends.

Contents 1 Background 1.1 Rationale for renewables 1.2 Current trends 2 Wind power in the U.S. 2.1 Wind power in Texas 2.2 Wind power in California 2.3 Wind power costs 2.4 Additional income for farmers 2.5 Aesthetics and the environment 3 Solar power 3.1 Solar thermal power 3.1.1 Solar thermal power stations in the U.S. 3.1.1.1 Solar Energy Generating Systems 3.1.1.2 Nevada Solar One 3.1.1.3 Stirling Solar Dish 3.1.1.4 Land use issues 3.1.2 Solar water heating 3.2 Solar photovoltaic power in the U.S. 3.2.1 Solar photovoltaic power plants in the U.S. 3.2.1.1 Springerville Generating Station 3.2.1.2 Nellis Solar Power Plant 3.2.1.3 San Joaquin Valley Customer Choice Solar Farm 3.2.2 Distributed solar power 4 Biofuels in the U.S. 5 Geothermal power in the U.S. 6 Electrical transmission 7 Initiatives 7.1 Solar America Initiative 7.2 PEIS 7.3 California Solar Initiative 7.4 EPA Initiatives 8 Law and Legislation 8.1 Feed-in Tariffs 8.1.1 California Solar Initiative 8.2 Solar access law 8.2.1 Solar access law: California 8.3 Renewable portfolio standards laws 9 Renewable energy organizations 9.1 American Council on Renewable Energy 9.2 Environmental and Energy Study Institute 9.3 National Renewable Energy Laboratory 9.4 Rocky Mountain Institute 10 See also 11 See also 12 References 13 Bibliography 14 External links

[edit] Background

[edit] Rationale for renewables

Renewable energy technologies encompass a broad, diverse array of technologies, including solar photovoltaics, solar thermal power plants and heating/cooling systems, wind farms, hydroelectricity, geothermal power plants, and ocean power systems and the use of biomass.

The report Outlook On Renewable Energy In America explains that America needs renewable energy, for many reasons:

"America needs energy that is secure, reliable, improves public health, protects the environment, addresses climate change, creates jobs, and provides technological leadership. America needs renewable energy. If renewable energy is to be developed to its full potential, America will need coordinated, sustained federal and state policies that expand renewable energy markets; promote and deploy new technology; and provide appropriate opportunities to encourage renewable energy use in all critical energy market sectors: wholesale and distributed electricity generation, thermal energy applications, and transportation."^[6]

In 2007, President George W. Bush explained the need to diversify America's energy supply:

"It's in our vital interest to diversify America's energy supply -- the way forward is through technology. We must continue changing the way America generates electric power, by even greater use of clean coal technology, solar and wind energy, and clean, safe nuclear power.”^[7]

[edit] Current trends

Renewable energy resources provide just over six percent of the total energy used in the U.S. today. California is a leading state and 31 percent of California's electricity comes from renewable sources. Most of this renewable electricity comes from hydropower, but 12 percent comes from "new" renewables which include wind and geothermal energy.^[8] It is the commercialization of these new renewable technologies which is the focus of this article.

The United States has some of the best renewable energy resources in the world, which have the potential to meet a rising and significant share of the nation's energy demand. A quarter of the U.S. land area has winds strong enough to generate electricity at the same price as natural gas and coal.^[8]

Many of the new technologies that harness renewables — including wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels — are, or soon will be, economically competitive with the fossil fuels that meet 85 percent of U.S. energy needs. Dynamic growth rates are driving down costs and spurring rapid advances in technologies.^[8]

All but four U.S. states now have incentives in place to promote renewable energy, while more than a dozen have enacted new renewable energy laws in recent years.^[8]

[edit] Wind power in the U.S.

Main article: Wind power in the United States

Wind power is a growing industry in the United States. Latest American Wind Energy Association figures show that installed U.S. wind power capacity now exceeds 16,800 MW which is enough to serve 4.5 million average households. Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development, followed by California.^[2] The U.S. is expected to become the world leader in installed wind power by the end of 2009.^[9]

[edit] Wind power in Texas

Wind power in Texas consists of many wind farms with a total installed capacity of 4,356 MW.^[2] Some of the larger wind farms in Texas include the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center, Sweetwater Wind Farm, King Mountain Wind Farm, Roscoe Wind Farm, Desert Sky Wind Farm, Woodward Mt. I & II, and Brazos Wind Ranch. As of 2007, 942 MW of wind power is currently under construction in Texas.^[10]

The Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center is the world's largest wind farm at 735.5MW capacity. It consists of 291 GE Energy 1.5 megawatt wind turbines and 130 Siemens 2.3 megawatt wind turbines spread over nearly 47,000 acres (190 km²) of land in Taylor and Nolan County, Texas.^[11]

Expansion of wind power capacity will help Texas meet its renewable energy goal of 5,000 new megawatts of power from renewable sources by 2015.^[12]

[edit] Wind power in California

Wind power in California has been an area of considerable activity for many years. California was the first U.S. state where large wind farms were developed, beginning in the early 1980s.^[13] By 1995, California produced 30 percent of the entire world's wind-generated electricity.^[14]

More than 13,000 of California's wind turbines, or 95 percent of all of California's wind output, are located in three primary regions: Altamont Pass Wind Farm (east of San Francisco); Tehachapi Pass Wind Farm (south east of Bakersfield), and San Gorgonio Pass Wind Farm (near Palm Springs, east of Los Angeles).^[15]

[edit] Wind power costs

Wind-generated electricity cost 38¢ per kilowatt-hour when the wind industry began in California in the early 1980s. Since then it has dropped to 4¢ or below at the best wind sites and some U.S. long-term supply contracts have been signed for 3¢ per kilowatt-hour. By 2010, wind farms at prime sites may be generating electricity at 2¢ per kilowatt-hour, making it one of the world’s most economical sources of electricity.^[16]

[edit] Additional income for farmers

There is considerable competition for wind farms among farmers in places like Iowa or ranchers in Colorado. Farmers, with no investment on their part, typically receive $3,000–5,000 per year in royalties from the local utility for siting a single, large, advanced-design wind turbine, which occupies a quarter-acre of land. This land would produce 40 bushels of corn worth $120 or, in ranch country, beef worth perhaps $15.^[17]

[edit] Aesthetics and the environment

Landscape and ecological issues may be significant for some wind farm proposals.^[18] However, when appropriate planning procedures for site selection are followed, environmental problems should be minimal. Some people may still object to wind farms, but their concerns should be weighed against the need to address the threats posed by climate change and the opinions of the broader community.^[19][20] Worldwide experience has shown that community consultation and direct involvement of the general public in wind farm projects has helped to increase community approval.^[21]

[edit] Solar power

Main article: Solar power in the United States

[edit] Solar thermal power

[edit] Solar thermal power stations in the U.S.

See also: Solar power plants in the Mojave Desert

[edit] Solar Energy Generating Systems

Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) is the name given to nine solar power plants in the Mojave Desert. SEGS I-VII are located at Kramer Junction, and SEGS VIII and IX are at Harper Lake and Barstow respectively. The SEGS power plants were commissioned between 1984 and 1991.^[4]

The installation uses parabolic trough solar thermal technology along with natural gas to generate electricity. The facility has a total of 400,000 mirrors and covers 1,000 acres (4 km²). The plants have a total generating capacity of 354 MW, making the system the largest solar plant of any kind in the world.^[4]

[edit] Nevada Solar One

Nevada Solar One generates 64MW of power and in Boulder City, Nevada, and was built by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), and Solargenix Energy. Nevada Solar One started producing electricity in June 2007.

Nevada Solar One uses parabolic troughs as thermal solar concentrators, heating tubes of liquid which act as solar receivers. These solar receivers are specially coated tubes made of glass and steel. About 19,300 of these 4 metre long tubes are used in the newly built power plant. Nevada Solar One also uses a technology that collects extra heat by putting it into phase-changing molten salts. This energy can then be drawn on at night.^[22]

Solar thermal power plants designed for solar-only generation are ideally matched to summer noon peak loads in prosperous areas with significant cooling demands, such as the south-western United States. Using thermal energy storage systems, solar thermal operating periods can even be extended to meet base-load needs.^[23]

[edit] Stirling Solar Dish

This article or section contains information about a planned or proposed power plant, or power plant under construction. It may contain information of a speculative nature and the content may change as the construction and/or completion of the power plant approaches, and more information becomes available.

Stirling Energy Systems in conjunction with utility company Southern California Edison is erecting a 500 megawatt, 4,600 acre (19 km²), solar power plant to open in 2009.^{[24] [25]} This will be the first commercial application of the Stirling Solar Dish^[26] which concentrates solar energy by the use of reflective surfaces and by the use of the Stirling heat engine to convert the heat into electricity.^[27]

Stirling Energy Systems have also announced another agreement with San Diego Gas & Electric to provide between 300 and 900 megawatts of electricity.^[27]

[edit] Land use issues

Solar thermal power plants are big and seem to use a lot of land, but when looking at electricity output versus total size, they use less land than hydroelectric dams (including the size of the lake behind the dam) or coal plants (including the amount of land required for mining and excavation of the coal). While all power plants require land and have an environmental impact, the best locations for solar power plants are on land, such as deserts, for which there might be few other uses.^[28]

[edit] Solar water heating

More than 1.5 million homes and businesses currently use solar water heating in the United States, representing a capacity of over 1,000 megawatts (MW) of thermal energy generation. Another 400 MW is likely to be installed over the next 3-5 years, according to the US Department of Energy. Assuming that 40 percent of existing homes in the United States have adequate access to sunlight, 29 million solar water heaters could be installed.^[29]

Solar water heaters can operate in any climate. Performance varies depending on how much solar energy is available at the site, as well as how cold the water coming into the system is. The colder the water, the more efficiently the system operates.^[29]

Solar water heaters reduce the need for conventional water heating by about two-thirds and pay for their installation within 4 to 8 years with electricity or natural gas savings. Compared to those with electric water heaters, Florida homeowners with solar water heaters save 50 to 85 percent on their water heating bills, according to the Florida Solar Energy Center.^[29]

[edit] Solar photovoltaic power in the U.S.

[edit] Solar photovoltaic power plants in the U.S.

[edit] Springerville Generating Station

The 4.6 megawatt Springerville Generating Station is the biggest operational solar photovoltaic farm in the United States, located near Tucson, Arizona. The solar farm delivers power to Tucson Electric Power, a subsidiary of UniSource Energy Corp.^[30]

[edit] Nellis Solar Power Plant

The Nellis Solar Power Plant was completed in December, 2007. It is currently the largest solar photovoltaic system ever to be built in North America and is located at Nellis Air Force Base in Clark County, Nevada. It includes approximately 70,000 solar panels and the peak power generation capacity of the plant will is approximately 15 megawatts.^[31][32]

[edit] San Joaquin Valley Customer Choice Solar Farm

This article or section contains information about a planned or proposed power plant, or power plant under construction. It may contain information of a speculative nature and the content may change as the construction and/or completion of the power plant approaches, and more information becomes available.

San Francisco based solar farms developer Cleantech America has announced its plan to create a 80-megawatt solar photovoltaic farm in San Joaquin Valley, California. The solar farm is to occupy 640 acres (2.6 km²) and upon completion in 2011 will be 17 times the size of the largest existing US photovoltaic farm, and about seven times the size of the world's biggest existing PV plant.^[30] Cleantech has announced also plans to build a five-megawatt solar farm on 40 acres near Mendota, California.^[33]

[edit] Distributed solar power

Main article: Building-integrated photovoltaic

In recent years thousands and soon millions of homes, as well as many schools and businesses will include photovoltaic solar panels on their roof. Most of these are grid connected and use net metering laws to allow use of electricity in the evening that was generated during the daytime. New Jersey leads the nation with the least restrictive net metering law, while California leads in total number of homes which have solar panels installed. Many were installed because of the million solar roof initiative.^[34] California has decided that it is not moving forward fast enough on photovoltaic generation and is considering enacting Feed-in Tariffs.^[35] Washington state has a feed-in tariff of 15 ¢/kWh which increases to 54 ¢/kWh if components are manufactured in the state.^[36] Hawaii and Michigan are also considering feed in tariffs.

Many of the homes, schools and businesses which have installed solar panels can be monitored online on the internet.^[37]

Another proposal for distributed generation is to cover the nations parking lots with solar car parks.

[edit] Biofuels in the U.S.

Main article: Biofuel in the United States

Most cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. Ford, DaimlerChrysler, and GM are among the automobile companies that sell “flexible-fuel” cars, trucks, and minivans that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85% ethanol (E85). By mid-2006, there were approximately six million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.^[38]

The challenge is to expand the market for biofuels beyond the farm states where they have been most popular to date.^[39] Flex-fuel vehicles are assisting in this transition because they allow drivers to choose different fuels based on price and availability. The Energy Policy Act of 2005, which calls for 7.5 billion gallons of biofuels to be used annually by 2012, will also help to expand the market.^[40]

It should also be noted that the growing ethanol and biodiesel industries are providing jobs in plant construction, operations, and maintenance, mostly in rural communities. According to the Renewable Fuels Association, the ethanol industry created almost 154,000 U.S. jobs in 2005 alone, boosting household income by $5.7 billion. It also contributed about $3.5 billion in tax revenues at the local, state, and federal levels.^[41]

[edit] Geothermal power in the U.S.

Geothermal energy continues to be an area of considerable activity in the US. The USA is the world leader in online capacity and the generation of electricity from geothermal energy.^[42]

According to 2005 state energy data, geothermal energy provided approximately 16 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity -- 0.37% of the electricity consumed in the U.S. As of May 2007, geothermal electric power was generated in five U.S. states: Alaska, California, Hawaii, Nevada, and Utah. According to the Geothermal Energy Association's recent report, there were 75 new geothermal power projects underway in 12 states as of May 2007 . This is an increase of 14 projects in an additional three states compared to a survey completed in November 2006.^[42]

The most significant catalyst behind new industry activity is the Energy Policy Act of 2005. This Act made new geothermal plants eligible for the full federal production tax credit, previously available only to wind power projects. It also authorized and directed increased funding for research by the Department of Energy, and gave the Bureau of Land Management new legal guidance and secure funding to address its backlog of geothermal leases and permits.^[42]

[edit] Electrical transmission

DOE will work with the Western Governors' Association (WGA) to identify areas in the West with substantial renewable energy resources and to expedite the development and delivery of that energy to meet regional energy needs. Subject to congressional appropriations, DOE plans to contribute up to $2.3 million over the next 3 years to the Western Renewable Energy Zones (WREZ) project, which was launched by WGA and DOE. Under a cooperative agreement with WGA, DOE will help to identify the WREZs, develop regional transmission plans to enhance access to the WREZs, create a transparent process to bring together utilities and the companies developing those renewable energy resources, and encourage interstate cooperation to address permitting and cost issues with transmission lines that cross state lines. Participating in the project are 11 western states, two Canadian provinces, and areas in Mexico that are part of the Western Interconnection, the massive electrical grid that supplies electricity to most of the West. ^{[43] [44]}

[edit] Initiatives

[edit] Solar America Initiative

The Solar America Initiative (SAI)^[45] is a part of the Federal Advanced Energy Initiative to accelerate the development of advanced photovoltaic materials with the goal of making it cost-competitive with other forms of renewable electricity by 2015.

The U.S. Department of Energy Solar Energy Technology Program (SETP) will achieve the goals of the SAI through partnerships and strategic alliances by focusing primarily on four areas:

• Market Transformation — activities that address marketplace barriers and offer the opportunity for market expansion
• Device and Process Proof of Concept — R&D activities addressing novel devices or processes with potentially significant performance or cost advantages
• Component Prototype and Pilot-Scale Production — R&D activities emphasizing development of prototype PV components or systems produced at pilot-scale with demonstrated cost, reliability, or performance advantages
• System Development and Manufacturing — collaborative R&D activities among industry and university partners to develop and improve solar energy technologies

[edit] PEIS

DOE is also working with the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) to assess the impacts associated with solar energy development on BLM-managed public lands in six western states. The joint Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement (PEIS) will assess the environmental, social, and economic impacts from solar energy projects located in Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah. The joint PEIS will also evaluate a number of alternative management strategies to determine which presents the best management approach for the agencies to adopt in terms of mitigating potential impacts and facilitating solar energy development. The measures adopted as a result of this PEIS will provide consistency and certainty for solar energy development and will help expedite environmental analysis for site-specific projects in the future.

During its work on the PEIS, the BLM will focus attention on the 125 applications already received for rights-of-way for solar energy development, while deferring new applications until after completion of the PEIS. The 125 existing applications involve almost a million acres of land and have the potential to generate 70,000 megawatts of electricity, enough to power 20 million average U.S. homes. The PEIS will establish a process for accepting future applications, possibly through a competitive process, which would be likely to attract companies with the experience and resources necessary to quickly deploy solar energy projects. The BLM is accepting comments on the scope of the PEIS through July 15 and will also hold public scoping meetings in the six states from mid-June through early July. ^{[46] [47]}

[edit] California Solar Initiative

Further information: Feed-in Tariff

As part of Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger's Million Solar Roofs Program, California has set a goal to create 3,000 megawatts of new, solar-produced electricity by 2017 - moving the state toward a cleaner energy future and helping lower the cost of solar systems for consumers. This is a comprehensive $2.8 billion program.^[48]

The California Solar Initiative offers cash incentives on solar PV systems of up to $2.50 a watt. These incentives, combined with federal tax incentives, can cover up to 50% of the total cost of a solar panel system.^[49] It should also be noted that there are many financial incentives to support the use of renewable energy in other US states.^[50]

[edit] EPA Initiatives

To promote energy efficiency and environmentally sensitive energy generation, Environmental Protection Agency facilities in the United States are using renewable energy technologies to supplement or replace a large portion of their energy requirements at the following facilities:

• Ada, Oklahoma (geothermal heat pump)
• Ann Arbor, Michigan (fuel cell)
• Chicago, Illinois, Regional Office (photovoltaic array)
• Corvallis, Oregon (photovoltaic array)
• Edison, New Jersey (solar water heating)
• Gulf Breeze, Florida (solar lighting)
• Golden, Colorado (wind power and transpired solar collector)
• Manchester, Washington (wind power)
• Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (photovoltaic solar panels and street lights)^[51]

[edit] Law and Legislation

See also: Energy policy of the United States

[edit] Feed-in Tariffs

[edit] California Solar Initiative

Further information: Feed-in Tariff

As part of Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger's Million Solar Roofs Program, California has set a goal to create 3,000 megawatts of new, solar-produced electricity by 2017 - moving the state toward a cleaner energy future and helping lower the cost of solar systems for consumers. This is a comprehensive $2.8 billion program.^[52]

The California Solar Initiative offers cash incentives on solar PV systems of up to $2.50 a watt. These incentives, combined with federal tax incentives, can cover up to 50% of the total cost of a solar panel system.^[53] It should also be noted that there are many financial incentives to support the use of renewable energy in other US states.^[54]

[edit] Solar access law

Solar rights legislation refers to a solar access law. This is a law which, broadly speaking, protects the rights of a property owner to unimpeded solar radiation, protecting them from overshadowing, and building in.

[edit] Solar access law: California

Solar Easement Law (Civil code sections 801 & 801.5): Provides the opportunity to protect future solar access via a negotiated easement with neighboring property owners.

Solar Shade Control Act of 1979 (Public Resources Code sections 25980- 25986): addresses shade from neighboring vegetation.

Solar Rights Act amended in 2004 by AB 2473 (Civil code section 714, Health and Safety Code section 17959.1, Government code section 65850.5): Prohibits local governments from restricting the installation of a solar energy system based on aesthetics

[edit] Renewable portfolio standards laws

This refers to legislation which creates a market in tradeable renewable or green electricity certificates. Electricity distributors or wholesaler purchasers of electricity are required to source a specified percentage of their electricity (portfolio) from renewable generation sources. Liable entities which fall short of their quota can purchase certificates from accredited suppliers who have generated renewable electricity and obtained and registered certificates to sell on that market.

[edit] Renewable energy organizations

Organizations which are shaping the deployment of renewable energy technologies include the American Council on Renewable Energy, Environmental and Energy Study Institute, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and Rocky Mountain Institute.

[edit] American Council on Renewable Energy

The American Council on Renewable Energy (ACORE), is a non-profit organization with headquarters in Washington DC. It was founded in 2001 as a unifying forum for bringing renewable energy into the mainstream of American’s economy and lifestyle. In 2005 ACORE had 240 member organizations.^[55]

In 2007, ACORE published Outlook On Renewable Energy In America, a two volume report about the future of renewable energy in the United States.^[56] It has been said that this report exposes a "new reality for renewable energy in America."^[57]

[edit] Environmental and Energy Study Institute

The Environmental and Energy Study Institute (EESI) is a non-profit organization which promotes environmentally sustainable societies. Founded in 1984 by a group of Congressional Members, EESI seeks to be a catalyst that moves society away from environmentally damaging fossil fuels and toward a clean energy future. EESI presents policy solutions that will result in decreased global warming and air pollution; improvements in public health, energy security and rural economic development opportunities; increased use of renewable energy sources and improved energy efficiency.

[edit] National Renewable Energy Laboratory

An important part of the mission of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is the transfer of NREL-developed technologies to renewable energy markets. NREL's Technology Transfer Office supports laboratory scientists and engineers in the successful and practical application of their expertise and the technologies they develop. R&D staff and facilities are recognized and valued by industry, as demonstrated through many collaborative research projects and licensed technologies with public and private partners. NREL's innovative technologies have also been recognized with 39 R&D 100 awards.

[edit] Rocky Mountain Institute

The Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI) is an organization dedicated to research, publication, consulting, and lecturing in the general field of sustainability, with a special focus on profitable innovations for energy and resource efficiency. RMI is headquartered in Snowmass, Colorado, and also maintains offices in Boulder, Colorado. RMI has recently published the book Winning the Oil Endgame.

[edit] See also

[edit] See also

• List of large wind farms
• List of solar thermal power stations
• List of renewable energy topics by country
• Energy efficiency
• Energy Policy Act of 2005
• Green electricity
• Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS)
• Renewable energy commercialization
• Category:Renewable energy in the United States

[edit] References

[edit] Bibliography

[edit] External links

• Panel: Ducks don't dodge turbines
• Wind Turbines Not a Threat to U.S. Bird Population, Says Study
• U.S. Wind Industry to Exceed 3,000 MW in 2007
• Huge Solar Plants Bloom in Desert
• Wind power comes of age
• Acciona Acquires 1300 MW of Development Assets in Midwest
• SCE Renewable Energy Contracts Tap Wind, Solar, Biomass and Geothermal
• Two Tidal Projects Gain Speed in Energy Development Race
• Southern Utilities Resist Renewables
• Solargenix

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