Religion and politics
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This article covers various areas of the interaction between religion and politics.
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[edit] Realms of politics
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To the extent that "Politics is the process by which groups make decisions" there are at least three significant realms where the question of the process of group decision making applies when considering religion - internal to the religion, external to the religion, and when the religion's decisions are mixed into the general society. Internal politics can be viewed as the administrative order of a religion (at least to the extent it has one) and deals with authority and responsibilities, individual and group leadership, and ultimately depends directly or indirectly on the principles of the Founder of the religion. The external politics of a religion deals with how it reacts to and guides members to the society and world around it. The third realm of politics and religion is when the religion and government have a formal relationship and the religion's teachings and administration have practical effect on members of the society whether they are members of the religion or not(and in extreme cases there are no official non-members acknowledged.)
There is also a general sense of a reaction to each of the above from other associated groups: so for internal politics you have groups who reject a policy, for external politics you have non-members or the government or elements of the government reacting to choices of the religion and it's influence on society as they see it, and when a religion is "in charge" there are matters governmental choices having religious implications.
A 2004 survey of religion and politics in the United States[1] describes political attitudes of eighteen religious groups on a wide variety of issues at the time of the 2004 elections. This is the fourth survey undertaken by the Ray C. Bliss Institute of Applied Politics at the University of Akron to measure political attitudes and religion in the United States.
[edit] Religious interpretations of external politics
How theologians interpret the political domain, and how they suggest that people should act within that domain (for example "Render unto Caesar what is Caesar's and unto God what is God's") varies widely. Some call for withdrawing from the world; while others say politics should stay out of religion (quietism). Contemporary moves to impose Sharia Law in some countries and political action (Liberation theology) to affect social change and social justice are two additional responses from religious communities.
Historically, politics and religion were often one and the same. There was the concept of Divine Power of kingship in which royal power is believed to be derived from God and therefore subjects should obey him. Earlier thinkers like Marsilio Ficino made an effort to separate religion and politics. Niccolò Machiavelli was an Italian political philosopher who advocated that a ruler can use the power of the church to establish and maintain his reign, which maintains stability in a society.
- See also Religious rejection of politics and Religion and power
[edit] Religious governments
[edit] Theocracy
This term theocracy describes a state in which religious and leaders in general society or government are identical or form a strongly interlocked group. A number of states in the ancient world could be so described, and examples in more recent times include the Vatican, Tibet under the Dalai Lama and Iran in certain periods. Mount Athos, although not formally independent could also be described as a theocracy.
[edit] Religious administration and authority
Internal politics of a religion and matters of organization of groups within a religion (members, leadership, children, youth, adults, men, women, and layers of administration....)
[edit] Bahá'í administration
The administration of the Bahá'í Faith is divided into two parts: the elected positions and the appointed positions. Having no ordained, professional priesthood, Bahá'ís operate through a type of non-partisan democratic self-government. The traditional functions of community leadership and moral leadership are not vested in individuals, but in an institutional framework with two main branches. Some features that set apart the Bahá'í administration from similar systems of human government are the ordinances exempting its members from any responsibility to those whom they represent, and from the obligation to conform to their views, convictions or sentiments; the absence of any form of campaigning or nominations in the free and democratic elections by the mass of Bahá'ís. The highest elected body is the Universal House of Justice, which possesses "the exclusive right to legislate on matters not explicitly revealed in the Most Holy Book."
Bahá'ís elect members to councils which are vested with the authority of the community. The members of these councils, themselves, have no individual authority. When duly constituted, however, and specifically when deciding matters as a body, they act as the head of the community. Bahá'í elections use what is described as a three-stage councilor-republic system, which differs in who are the electors and who are the eligible members depending on the scope of the election. At all levels, only residents within the jurisdiction of the body being elected are eligible for membership, and all elections are won by plurality. In general, adult Bahá'ís in good standing resident in the jurisdiction are both the electorate (either directly or through delegation) as well as the pool of potential members of the body being elected.
Shoghi Effendi sternly deprecated partisan politics and certain other practices current in western democracies, such as campaigning and nomination. As a result:
- Nominations and campaigning are prohibited. Bahá'ís, according to Shoghi Effendi, should not seek to advance themselves above their neighbour.
- Voters are urged not to consult with each other about the suitability of individuals.
- Voters are strongly encouraged to study and discuss, in abstract, the five qualities named by Shoghi Effendi as being necessary in those elected to serve, without reference to individuals.
- Individuals should be selected only on the basis of the five mentioned qualities, without reference to material means or other characteristics, except insofar as they provide insight into the five qualities.
- Those elected are expected to serve, though in cases of extreme personal difficulty, such a member may request that the body to which they are elected relieve them.
Shoghi Effendi saw these (and other) aspects as essential to preserving the full rights and prerogatives of the electors, guarding them against manipulation.
[edit] Buddhist administration
By the time of the passing of the Buddha, the Kings and Disciples were in communication and settling the religion became a priority. In 544 B.C. three months after the Buddha had passed away, King Ajatasattu sponsored the First Council in the sattaparnaguha Cave situated outside Rajagaha. The meeting was prompted by Elder Mahakassapa after hearing a disparaging remark about the strict rule of life for monks. After gaining the Sangha's (or assembly of monks and nuns) approval he called to council five hundred Arahants.
With the Elder Mahakassapa presiding, the five-hundred Arahant monks met in council during the rainy season. The first thing Mahakassapa did was to question the foremost expert on the Vinaya of the day, Venerable Upali on particulars of the monastic rule. The Elder Mahakassapa then turned his attention to Ananda in virtue of his reputable expertise in all matters connected with the Dhamma. Happily, the night before the Council was to meet, Ananda had attained Arahantship and joined the Council. The First Council also gave its official seal of approval for the closure of the chapter on the minor and lesser rules, and approval for their observance. It took the monks seven months to recite the whole of the Vinaya and the Dhamma and those monks sufficiently endowed with good memories retained all that had been recited. This historic first council came to be known as the Pancasatika because five-hundred fully enlightened Arahants had taken part in it.
[edit] Christian Administration
Given that there are many denominations within Christianity there is no universal Christian administration. While it can be said that many have some hierarchy of ministers or priests and then the general membership of the church, others are simply a loose association of independent local churches.
[edit] Episcopal polity
The governance style typified by the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, among others. Each church is overseen by a Bishop, who is then responsible to an upper hierarchy, usually Archbishops and Cardinals, with one mortal leader, such as the Pope or Patriarch.
[edit] Presbyterian polity
Most commonly seen in Presbyterianism, though not unique to it. Presbyterian governance is a form of Representative democracy, in which boards elected by church membership, known as Presbyters, retain a level of control over individual churches.
[edit] Congregationalist polity
Each local church controls its own affairs in a Congregationalist model. Each church is governed by the decisions of its own membership. Denominational organizations in this form of governance are simply a loose confederation of member churches.
[edit] Mormon authority
Mormons maintain that God withdrew the "priesthood authority" to act in His name from the earth with the deaths of the apostles of the primitive Christian Church, only to be reestablished on earth through Joseph Smith. Early Mormonism church established theocratic institutions in anticipation of Christ's imminent return to accept leadership of a cleansed world during the Millennium.
[edit] Jewish Administration
Orthodox Judaism believes that after the coming of the Moshiach, he will become a king, and all Jews will be united in Israel to be ruled by him. Jewish law, halacha, provides many guidelines to the reign, central theme of which is that God is above the king. Until then, Jews are advised to be on good terms with the government, but not participate in it too directly.
Reform Judaism, on the other hand, believes in integration with the society they live in, including the political structure of the country that a Jew is a citizen of.
[edit] Muslim administration
Islam has many divisions, sects, and schools and they each follow a different administration or authority. After Muhammad's death, Sunni Muslims believe that Muhammad's lieutenant Abu Bakr was chosen to be the successor by the community to be the head of the religion and the Caliph and that this was the proper procedure. They further argue that a caliph is ideally chosen by election or community consensus.
Shi'a Muslims disagree. They believe that Muhammad had given many indications that he considered ˤAlī ibn Abī Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, as his chosen successor. They say that Abū Bakr seized power by force and trickery. All caliphs other than ˤAlī were usurpers. ˤAlī and his descendents are believed to have been the only proper Muslim leaders, or imams. This matter is covered in much greater detail in the article Succession to Muhammad, and in the article on Shi'a Islam.
A third branch of Islam, the Ibadi, believes that the caliphate rightly belongs to the greatest spiritual leader among Muslims, regardless of his lineage. They are currently an extremely small sect, found mainly in Oman.
Abū Bakr nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed, and the Muslim community submitted to his choice. His successor, Uthman, was elected by a council of electors, but was soon perceived by some to be ruling as a "king" rather than an elected leader. Uthman was killed by rebellious miscreants. ˤAlī then took control, but was not universally accepted as caliph. He faced numerous rebellions and was assassinated after a tumultuous rule of only five years. This period is known as the Fitna, or the first Islamic civil war.
One of ˤAlī's challengers was Muˤāwiyya, a relative of Uthman. After ˤAlī's death, Muˤāwiyya managed to overcome all other claimants to the Caliphate. He is remembered by history as Muˤāwiyya, the founder of the Umayyad dynasty. Under Muˤāwiyya, the caliphate became a hereditary office.
[edit] Religion and class
Religion has, in a number of cases, been used as a means of defining or maintaining social class structures. Elsewhere different classes have adopted different faiths - as with the spread of Christianity in the Roman Empire and, in 18th century England, with the spread of Methodism.
[edit] References
- ^ American Religious Landscape and Political Attitudes: A Baseline for 2004. American Landscape Reports. Ray C. Bliss Institute of Applied Politics (2004). Retrieved on 2007-04-04.
[edit] External links
[edit] See also
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