Ratanakiri Province

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Coordinates: 14°N 107°E / 14, 107

Ratanakiri (រតនគីរី)
Province
Road in rural Ratanakiri
Name origin: Khmer: រតន (gem) + គីរី (mountain)
Country	Cambodia
Capital	Banlung
- coordinates	13°44′49″N 107°00′16″E / 13.746804, 107.004519
Area	10,782 km² (4,163 sq mi)
Population	118,000 (2004 est.)
Density	9.1 /km² (24 /sq mi)
Founded	1959
Timezone	Cambodia time (UTC+7)
Governor	Muong Poy
Ratanakiri in Cambodia

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Ratanakiri is a province in northeastern Cambodia that borders Laos to the north, Vietnam to the east, Mondulkiri Province to the south, and Stung Treng Province to the west. Ratanakiri has long been occupied by the highland Khmer Loeu, who are a minority elsewhere in Cambodia. During the region's early history, its Khmer Loeu inhabitants were exploited as slaves by the Khmer, Lao, and Thai empires who controlled the region. The slave trade economy ended during the French colonial era, but a harsh Khmerization campaign after Cambodia's independence again threatened Khmer Loeu ways of life. The Khmer Rouge built its headquarters in the province in the 1960s, and bombing during the Vietnam War devastated the region. Today, rapid development in the province is altering traditional ways of life.

Ratanakiri is known for its lush forests; the hilly basalt plateau between Ratanakiri's two major rivers is home to most of the province's population. Ratanakiri is sparsely populated; its 118,000 residents make up less than 1% of the country's total population. Residents generally live in villages of 100 to 300 people, though the provincial capital of Banlung (by far Ratanakiri's largest settlement) has a population of 17,000.

Ratanakiri is among the least developed provinces of Cambodia. Its infrastructure is poor, and the local government is weak. The vast majority of Ratanakiri's population engages in subsistence shifting agriculture. Health indicators in Ratanakiri are extremely poor, with nearly one in four children dying before age five. Education levels are also low; three quarters of the population is illiterate.

[edit] History

Shouldered stone axes and earthenware ceramics found in Ratanakiri suggest that the region has been occupied at least as early as the stone or bronze age.^[1] Since at least the 4th century A.D., the highlanders of present-day northeast Cambodia traded with towns along the Gulf of Thailand.^[2] The region was invaded by the Cham, Khmer, Thais, and Annamites during its early history, but no empire ever brought the area under centralized control.^[3] From the 13th century or earlier until the 19th century, highland villages were often raided by Khmer, Lao, and Thai slave traders.^[2][3] The region was conquered by local Laotian rulers in the 18th century and then by the Thai in the 19th century.^[4] The area was incorporated into French Indochina in 1893, and colonial rule replaced slave trading.^[2] The French built huge rubber plantations, especially in Labansiek (present-day Banlung); indigenous workers were used for construction and rubber harvesting.^[3] While under French control, the land comprising present-day Ratanakiri was transferred from Siam (Thailand) to Laos and then to Cambodia.^[4][5] Though highland groups initially resisted their colonial rulers, by the end of the colonial era in 1953 they had been subdued.^[2]

Ratanakiri Province was created in 1959 from land that had been the eastern area of Stung Treng Province.^[3] The name Ratanakiri (រតនគីរី) is formed from the Khmer words រតន (ratana, gem) and គីរី (kiri, mountain), describing two features for which the province is known.^[6][7] During the 1950s and 1960s, the Norodom Sihanouk regime instituted a development and Khmerization campaign in northeast Cambodia that was designed to bring villages under government control, limit the influence of insurgents in the area, and "modernize" indigenous communities.^[2][8][9] Some Khmer Loeu were forcibly moved to the lowlands to be educated in Khmer language and culture, ethnic Khmer from elsewhere in Cambodia were moved into the province, and roads and large rubber plantations were built.^[2][8][10] After facing with harsh working conditions and sometimes involuntary labor on the plantations, many Khmer Loeu left their traditional homes and moved farther from provincial towns.^[8] In 1968, tensions led to an uprising by the Brao in which several Khmer were killed.^[11][12][13] The government responded harshly, torching settlements and killing hundreds of villagers.^[11][13][12]

U.S. president Richard Nixon (shown here discussing Cambodia at a 1970 press conference) authorized the covert 1969–1970 bombing of Vietnamese targets in Ratanakiri.^[14]

In the 1960s, the ascendant Khmer Rouge forged an alliance with ethnic minorities in Ratanakiri, exploiting Khmer Loeu resentment of the central government.^[11][15][16] The Communist Party of Kampuchea headquarters was moved to Ratanakiri in 1966, and hundreds of Khmer Loeu joined CPK units.^[17][18] During this period, there was also extensive Vietnamese activity in Ratanakiri.^[19] Vietnamese communists had operated in Ratanakiri since the 1940s;^[19] at a June 1969 press conference, Sihanouk said that Ratanakiri was "practically North Vietnamese territory".^[20] Between March 1969 and May 1970, the United States undertook a massive covert bombing campaign in the region, aiming to disrupt sanctuaries for communist Vietnamese troops. Villagers were forced outside of main towns to escape the bombings, foraging for food and living on the run with the Khmer Rouge.^[8][21][22] In June 1970, the central government withdrew its troops from Ratanakiri, abandoning the area to Khmer Rouge control.^[2][8] The Khmer Rouge regime, which had not initially been harsh in Ratanakiri, became increasingly oppressive.^[2][23] The Khmer Loeu were forbidden from speaking their native languages or practicing their traditional customs and religion, which were seen as incompatible with communism; communal living became compulsory, and the province's few schools were closed.^[8][24] Purges of ethnic minorities increased in frequency,^[25] and thousands of refugees fled to Vietnam and Laos.^[21] Preliminary studies indicate that bodies accounting for approximately 5% of Ratanakiri's residents were deposited in mass graves, a significantly lower rate than elsewhere in Cambodia.^[26]

After the Vietnamese defeated the Khmer Rouge in 1979, government policy toward Ratanakiri became one of benign neglect.^[8] The Khmer Loeu were permitted to return to their traditional livelihoods, but the government provided little infrastructure in the province.^[8] Under the Vietnamese, there was little contact between the provincial government and many local communities.^[27] Long after the fall of the Khmer Rouge regime, however, Khmer Rouge rebels remained in the forests of Ratanakiri.^[28][29] Rebels largely surrendered their arms in the 1990s, though attacks along provincial roads continued until 2002.^[29][28]

Ratanakiri's recent history has been characterized by development and attendant challenges to traditional ways of life.^[30][31] The national government has built roads, encouraged tourism and agriculture, and facilitated rapid immigration of lowland Khmers into Ratanakiri.^[30][32][33] Road improvements and political stability have increased land prices, and many Khmer Loeu villagers have been dispossessed of their land.^[30][31] (For more information, see Land tenure, below.) In the 2000s, Ratanakiri also received hundreds of Degar (Montagnard) refugees fleeing unrest in neighboring Vietnam; the Cambodian government was criticized for its forced repatriation of many refugees.^[34]

[edit] Geography and climate

Aerial view of Yak Loum Lake, a crater lake near Banlung

The geography of Ratanakiri Province is diverse, encompassing rolling hills, mountains, plateaus, lowland watersheds, crater lakes, and waterfalls. Two major rivers, Tonle San and Tonle Srepok, flow from east to west across the province. The far north of the province encompasses mountains of the Annamite Range, with dense broadleaf evergreen forests, relatively poor lithosol soil, and abundant wildlife.^[35][7] South of the Srepok River is a flat area of tropical deciduous forests with clay and lithosol soils.^[35][7][36] In the highlands between Tonle San and Tonle Srepok, the home of the vast majority of Ratanakiri's population, an hilly basalt plateau provides fertile red soils.^[35][7][36] The area is characterized by secondary forest that has regrown after shifting cultivation or logging.^[36] Along the eastern Vietnam border and western Stung Treng border are woodlands and mixed evergreen and deciduous forests.^[36]

Like other areas of Cambodia, Ratanakiri has a monsoonal climate with a rainy season from May to October and a dry season from November to April.^[36] Ratanakiri tends to be cooler, drier, and sunnier than the rest of Cambodia.^[36] The average daily high temperature in the province is 34.0 °C (93.2 °F), and the average daily low temperature is 22.1 °C (71.8 °F).^[37] Annual precipitation is approximately 2,000 millimetres (79 in) in the highlands and 2,900 millimetres (110 in) elsewhere.^[36] Flooding often occurs during the rainy season and has been exacerbated by the newly-built Yali Falls Dam.^[38][39][40]

Ka Choung falls

Some of the most biologically diverse lowland tropical rainforest and montane forest ecosystems of mainland Southeast Asia are located in Ratanakiri.^[41] One 1996 survey of an area to the northwest of Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary recorded 44 mammals, 76 birds, and 9 reptile species.^[35] Wildlife in Ratanakiri includes Asian elephants, gaur, and monkeys.^[35] Ratanakiri is an important site for the conservation of endangered birds, including the giant ibis and the greater adjutant.^[35] The province's forests contain a wide variety of flora; one half-hectare forest inventory identified 189 species of trees and 320 species of ground flora and saplings.^[35]

Nearly half of Ratanakiri has been set aside in protected areas,^[42][43] which include Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary and Virachey National Park. Though the province has been known for its relatively pristine environment, recent development has spawned numerous environmental problems.^[44] Land use patterns are changing as population growth has accelerated and agriculture and logging have intensified.^[45] Soil erosion is increasing, and microclimates are being altered.^[45] Habitat loss and unsustainable hunting have contributed to the province's decreasing biodiversity.^[46][43] The province's abundant monsoonal rains, and hence its water supplies, have become less certain.^[45]

[edit] Government and administrative divisions

Government in Ratanakiri is weak, due largely to the province's remoteness, ethnic diversity, and recent history of Khmer Rouge dominance.^[47][48] The provincial legal framework is poor, and the rule of law is even weaker in Ratanakiri than elsewhere in Cambodia.^[47] Furthermore, government services are ineffective and insufficient to meet the needs of the province.^[46] The Cambodian government has traditionally accepted substantial support from NGOs in the region.^[49][46]

Muong Poy, a member of the Cambodian People's Party (CPP),^[50] is the provincial governor.^[38] Bou Lam is the deputy governor,^[51] and Chai Sarouen is the second deputy governor.^[52] Commune councils in Ratanakiri are composed of 219 members representing the CPP, 21 members representing the Sam Rainsy Party, and 13 members representing the Funcinpec Party.^[53] Political scientist Caroline Hughes has suggested that the CPP's overwhelming dominance in rural areas such as Ratanakiri stems from the central government's ability to suppress collective action, which in urban areas is offset by international donors and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that provide support for opposition parties.^[54] Thirty-six commune council members in Ratanakiri (14.2%) are women,^[55] and 98% of Ratanakiri's government staff is Khmer.^[56]

The province is subdivided into 9 districts, as follows:

[edit] Economy and transportation

Market in Banlung

The vast majority of the indigenous peoples of Ratanakiri are subsistence farmers, practicing slash and burn shifting cultivation. (See Culture below for more information on traditional subsistence practices.) Many families are beginning to shift production to cash crops such as cashews, mangoes, and tobacco, a trend that has accelerated in recent years.^[57][31][58] As of 2005, monetary income in the province averaged US$5 per month per person; purchased possessions such as motorcycles, televisions, and karaoke sets have become extremely desirable.^[58]

Larger-scale agriculture occurs on palm, maize, and rubber plantations.^[36] Other economic activities in the province include gem mining, commercial logging, and small-scale trading activities.^[36] Gems are generally mined using traditional methods, with individuals digging holes and tunnels and manually removing the gems;^[36] recently, however, commercial mining operations have been moving into the province.^[59] Small quantities of locally-made honey and traditional crafts are also exported from the province.^[36]

Road in Ratanakiri

Ratanakiri's tourist industry is rapidly expanding.^[60] Between 2001 and 2002, annual visitors to Ratanakiri increased from 2,000 to 9,000; in 2003, it was estimated that this figure could grow to 35,000 by 2010.^[61] Banlung, with its numerous hotels and guesthouses, is the region's tourist center.^[62] The region's tourism development strategy focuses on encouraging ecotourism.^[62] Increasing tourism in Ratanakiri has been somewhat problematic because local communities receive very little income from tourism and because guides sometimes bring tourists to villages without residents' consent, disrupting traditional ways of life.^[63] A small number of initiatives have sought to address these problems: a provincial tourism steering committee aims to ensure that tourism is non-destructive, and some programs exist to provide English and tourism skills to indigenous people.^[61]

Ox-cart, motorcycle, and walking are common means of transportation in Ratanakiri.^[36][64] The province's road system is among the worst in the country; in the wet season, roads are sometimes impassable because of mud.^[65][66] In January 2007, construction started on National Road 78 between Banlung and the Vietnam border; the road is expected to increase trade between Cambodia and Vietnam.^[67][68] A small airport in Banlung with a laterite runway offers flights between Phnom Penh and Banlung.^[69][70] Though the Cambodian government considers service at the airport to be generally reliable,^[69] the US government cautions against flying to or from the airport, citing several safety incidents since 2005.^[71]

[edit] Demographics and towns

Tampuan children from Ratanakiri Province

As of 2004, Ratanakiri Province had a population of approximately 118,000.^[72] Its population is increasing more quickly than Cambodia's total population, largely due to internal migration.^[73] In 1998, when the most recent national census was conducted, Ratanakiri made up 0.8% of Cambodia's total population, with a population density approximately 15% of the national average.^[50] The population of Ratanakiri is widely dispersed, with most residents living in villages of 100 to 300 people.^[74] About 70% of the province's population lives in the highlands; of the other 30%, approximately half live in more urbanized towns, and half live along rivers and in the lowlands, where they practice wetland rice cultivation and engage in market activities.^[35] Banlung, the provincial capital located in the central highlands, is by far the province's largest town, with a population of approximately 17,000 as of 2005.^[75] Other significant towns include Veun Sai, which is located in the north on the Se San river and had a population of 2,500 as of 2003,^[50] and Lomphat (the former provincial capital), which is located in the south on the Srepok River and had a population of 2,000 as of 2005.^[76]

Children in Ratanakiri

In 1998, 44.4% of Ratanakiri residents were aged 14 or younger, 52.1% were aged 15 to 64, and 3.5% were aged 65 or older; 49.2% of residents were male, and 50.8% were female.^[50] Of Ratanakiri residents aged 15 or older, 20.9% were single and had never been married, 71.6% were married, 5.1% were widowed, and 2.4% were divorced or separated.^[50] There were 16,646 households in the province, excluding the institutional, homeless, boat, and transient population; each household had an average of 5.6 members.^[50] Most households (87.5%) were headed by men; female heads of households were on average older (59.4% aged 40 or above) than male heads of households (48.5% aged 40 or above).^[50]

While highland peoples have inhabited Ratanakiri for well over a millennium, lowland peoples have migrated to the province in the last 200 years.^[35] As of 1998, various highland groups collectively called Khmer Loeu made up approximately 70% of Ratanakiri's population.^[73] These groups included the Tampuan (24.3%), Jarai (17.1%), Kreung (16.3%), Brou (7.0%), Kachok (2.7%), Kavet (1.9%), Kuy (0.5%), and Lun (0.1%).^[73] Ethnic Khmers made up 19.1% of the population, and Laos made up 9.6%.^[73] The remainder consisted of Vietnamese (0.7%), Cham (0.6%), and Chinese (0.3%).^[73] Since the 1998 census, migration to Ratanakiri from elsewhere in Cambodia has accelerated, which has likely increased the proportion of Khmers in the province.^[45] Though the official language of Ratanakiri (like all of Cambodia) is Khmer,^[77] each indigenous group speaks its own language.^[36] Less than 10% of Ratanakiri's indigenous population can speak Khmer fluently.^[78]

[edit] Health, education, and development

Health indicators in Ratanakiri are the worst in Cambodia.^[79] Malaria, tuberculosis, intestinal parasites, cholera, diarrhea, and vaccine-preventable diseases such as measles are endemic.^[74][79] Rattanakiri has Cambodia's highest rates of maternal and child mortality,^[74] with 22.9% of children dying before the age of five.^[80] Ratanakiri also has the country's highest rates of severe malnutrition.^[74] Ratanakiri residents' poor health can be attributed to a variety of factors, including poverty, physical remoteness, language and cultural barriers that prevent Khmer Loeu from obtaining medical care, poor infrastructure and access to water, lack of accountability in the medical community, and exacerbating environmental factors such as natural resource degradation, decreasing food production, and internal migration.^[74][79] The province has one referral hospital, 10 health centers, and 17 health posts.^[81] Medical equipment and supplies are minimal, and most health facilities are staffed by nurses or midwifes, who are often poorly trained and irregularly paid.^[81][82]

Village school in Ratanakiri

Education levels in Ratanakiri, particularly among Khmer Loeu, are very low. A 2002 survey of residents in six villages found that fewer than 10% of respondents had attended any primary school.^[83] Only 23.5% of Ratanakiri residents are literate (compared to 67.3% in Cambodia overall), with lower rates among those living outside Banlung District (15.7%) and among women (15.3%).^[84][50] Poor education in the province is largely caused by difficulties recruiting teachers, a need for children to contribute economically to the family, and the inability of most children to speak Khmer, which has long been the language of instruction.^[36] Bilingual education initiatives, in which students begin instruction in native languages and gradually transition to instruction in Khmer, began in Ratanakiri in 2002 and appear to have been successful.^[78][85] The programs aim to make education more accessible to speakers of indigenous languages, as well as to give Khmer Loeu access to national political and economic affairs by providing Khmer language skills.^[78]

Ratanakiri is one of the least developed provinces in Cambodia, and living conditions are generally poor.^[46][86] Most Ratanakiri residents (61.1%) obtain water from springs, streams, ponds, or rain; much of the remainder (32.2%) obtains water from dug wells.^[87] Only 5.5% of Ratanakiri residents obtain water from sources that are considered safe (purchased water, piped water, or tube/piped wells).^[87] Most households use kerosene lamps and other sources such as oil lamps for lighting,^[88] and few (39.5% in Banlung District and 2.1% elsewhere) have toilet facilities.^[50] Almost all households (96.2%) use firewood as the main fuel for cooking.^[50]

A variety of non-governmental organizations in Ratanakiri, including Oxfam and Health Unlimited, work to improve health and living conditions in the province.

[edit] Culture

See also: Khmer Loeu and Culture of Cambodia

Each of the province's Khmer Loeu ethnic groups has a distinct set of customs and form of social organization,^[36] but some generalizations may be made. Khmer Loeu typically practice subsistence slash and burn shifting cultivation in small villages of between 30 and 70 nuclear families.^[89][36] Each village collectively owns and governs a forest territory whose boundaries are known though not marked.^[89][36][31] Within this land, each family is allocated, on average, 1–2 hectares (2.5–5 acres) of actively cultivated land and 5–6 hectares (12.5–15 acres) of fallow land.^[90] The ecologically sustainable cultivation cycle practiced by the Khmer Loeu generally lasts 10 to 15 years.^[89] Villagers supplement their agricultural livelihood with a low-intensity system of hunting, fishing, and gathering over a large area.^[89][36]

Khmer Loeu diets in Ratanakiri are largely dictated by the food that is available for harvesting or gathering.^[91][92] Numerous food taboos also limit food choices, particularly among pregnant women, children, and the sick.^[93] The primary staple grain is rice, though most families experience rice shortages during the six months before harvest time.^[94] Some families have begun to plant maize to alleviate this problem; other sources of grain include potatoes, cassava, and taro.^[94] Most Khmer Loeu diets are low in protein, which is limited in availability.^[95] Wild game and fish are major protein sources, and smaller animals such as rats, wild chickens, and insects are also sometimes eaten.^[95] Domestic animals such as pigs, cows, and buffaloes are only eaten when sacrifices are made.^[95] In the rainy season, many varieties of vegetables and leaves are gathered from the forest.^[94] (Vegetables are generally not cultivated.^[94]) Commonly-eaten fruits include bananas, jackfruit, papayas, and mangoes.^[96]

Meeting house in a Kreung village near Banlung

Traditional indigenous crafts include textiles, baskets, mats, pipes, gourds (used as water containers), musical instruments, body ornaments, and amulets.^[36] Houses in rural Ratanakiri are made from bamboo, rattan, wood, saek, and kanma leaves, all of which are collected from nearby forests; they typically last for around three years.^[35] Village spatial organization varies by ethnic group.^[97] Kreung villages are constructed in a circular manner, with houses facing inwards toward a central meeting house.^[97] In Jarai villages, vast longhouses are inhabited by all extended families, with the inner house divided into smaller compartments.^[97] Tampuan villages may follow either pattern.^[97]

Nearly all Khmer Loeu are animist, and their cosmologies are intertwined with the natural world.^[89][36][81] Some forests are believed to be inhabited by local spirits, and local taboos forbid cutting in these areas.^[43][98] Within spirit forests, certain natural features such as rock formations, waterfalls, pools, and vegetation are sacred.^[98] Major sacrificial festivals in Ratanakiri occur during March and April, when fields are selected and prepared for the new planting season.^[99] Christian missionaries are present in the province, and some Khmer Loeu have converted to Christianity.^[100][101] Indigenous community representatives have described the missionaries as a major threat to their society.^[100] The region's ethnic Khmer are Buddhist.^[19][56]

Because of the provinces's high prevalence of malaria and its distance from regional centers, Ratanakiri remained isolated from Western influences until the late 20th century.^[7] Major cultural shifts have occurred in recent years, however, particularly in villages near roads and district towns; these changes have been attributed to contact with internal immigrants, government officials, and NGO workers.^[102] Clothing and diets are becoming more standardized, and traditional music is being displaced by Khmer music.^[102] Many villagers have also observed a loss of respect for elders and a growing divide between the young and the old.^[102] Young people have begun to refuse to abide by traditional rules and have stopped believing in spirits.^[102]

[edit] Land tenure

Despite a 2001 law allowing indigenous communities to obtain collective title to traditional lands, land alienation has been a major problem in Ratanakiri; some villages have been left nearly landless.^[30] The national government has granted concessions over land traditionally possessed by Ratanakiri's indigenous peoples,^{[30][103][33]} and even land "sales" have often involved bribes to officials, coercion, threats, or misinformation.^[30] Following the involvement of several international NGOs, land alienation has decreased in frequency.^[104] These NGOs have assisted in the training of provincial government officials, promoting understanding of indigenous community concerns as well as encouraging dialog between the provincial and national governments.^[104] Pilot communal land titling projects have aimed to give legal force to traditional land ownership.^[105] Community natural resource management initiatives in Ratanakiri have been successful and have served as models for similar programs on a national level.^{[106][104][107]}

[edit] References

[edit] External links

External videos
	View of Ratanakiri from a motorbike
	Villages in rural Ratanakiri
	Road in Ratanakiri
	Gem mining near Banlung
	Slideshow about health in Ratanakiri
	Market in Banlung

• Map of Ratanakiri
• Alternate map of Ratanakiri
• Ratanakiri provincial resources
• Official tourism site
• The Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ratanakiri.

v • d • e Ratanakiri Province Capital city: Banlung Andoung Meas District Malik  · Mai Hie  · Nhang  · Ta Lav Banlung District  · Bar Kaev District  · Kak  · Ke Chong  · Laming  · Lung Khung  · Seung  · Ting Chak Koun Mom District  · Lumphat District  · Ou Chum District  · Ou Ya Dav District  · Ta Veaeng District  · Ta Veaeng Leu  · Ta Veaeng Kraom Veun Sai District  · Ban Pong  · Hat Pak  · Ka Choun  · Kaoh Pang  · Kaoh Peak  · Kok Lak  · Pa Kalan  · Phnum Kok  · Veun Sai Landmarks Yak Loum Lake  · Ka Choung Falls

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