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The grammar of the Punjabi language is the study of the word order, case marking, verb conjugation, and other morphological and syntactic structures of the Punjabi language, an Indo-Aryan language native to the region of Punjab and spoken by the Punjabi people. This page discusses the grammar of Modern Standard Punjabi as defined by the relevant sources below (see #Bibliography).
[edit] Transliteration
In matters of script, Punjabi uses Gurmukhi and Shahmukhi. On this grammar page Punjabi is written in "standard orientalist" transcription as outlined in Masica (1991:xv). Being "primarily a system of transliteration from the Indian scripts, [and] based in turn upon Sanskrit" (cf. IAST), these are its salient features: subscript dots for retroflex consonants; macrons for etymologically, contrastively long vowels; h denoting aspirated stops. Tildes denote nasalized vowels, while grave and acute accents denote low and high tones respectively.
Vowels and consonants are outlined in the tables below. Hovering the mouse cursor over them will reveal the appropriate IPA symbol, while in the rest of the article hovering the mouse cursor over underlined forms will reveal the appropriate English translation. See Punjabi language#Phonology for further clarification.
[edit] Morphology
Punjabi distinguishes two genders, two numbers, and five cases of direct, oblique, vocative, ablative, and locative/instrumental. The latter two cases are essentially now vestigial: the ablative occurs only in the singular, in free variation with oblique case plus ablative postposition, and the locative/instrumental is confined to set adverbial expressions.[1] Nouns may be further divided into extended and unextended declensional subtypes, with the former characteristically consisting of masculines ending in unaccented -ā and feminines in -ī.
The below tables displays the suffix paradigms, as outlined in Shackle (2003:600-601). Regarding the masculine, "the [extended] case-morphemes, very similar to those of the unextended declension, are added to the obl. base -e-, which is shortened to -i- (phonetically [e̯]) before back vowels and is lost before front vowels."[2] The division between feminine unextendeds and extendeds ending in -ī looks to be now merely an etymological consideration, as there is neither a distinct oblique base nor any morphophonemic considerations.
Masculine
|
Dir. |
Obl. |
Voc. |
Abl. |
Loc./
Instr. |
| unEx. |
Sg. |
|
+ā |
+õ |
+e |
| Pl. |
|
+ā̃ |
+o |
|
+ī̃ |
| Ex. |
Sg. |
-ā |
-e |
-iā |
-iõ |
-e |
| Pl. |
-e |
-iā̃ |
-io |
|
-ī̃ |
|
Feminine
|
Dir. |
Obl. |
Voc. |
Abl. |
Loc./
Instr. |
| Sg. |
|
+e |
+õ |
+e |
| Pl. |
+ā̃ |
+o |
|
+ī̃ |
|
The next table of noun declensions shows the above suffix paradigms in action. Words, from Shackle (2003:600-601): kòṛā "stallion", sakhī "girlfriend", kàr "house", gall "thing".
Extended
|
Dir. |
Obl. |
Voc. |
Abl. |
Loc./
Instr. |
| Masc. |
Sg. |
kòṛā |
kòṛe |
kòṛiā |
kòṛiõ |
(kòṛe) |
| Pl. |
kòṛe |
kòṛiā̃ |
kòṛio |
|
| Fem. |
Sg. |
sakhī |
sakhīe |
| Pl. |
sakhīā̃ |
sakhīo |
|
Unextended
|
Dir. |
Obl. |
Voc. |
Abl. |
Loc./
Instr. |
| Masc. |
Sg. |
kàr |
kàrā |
kàrõ |
kàre |
| Pl. |
kàr |
kàrā̃ |
kàro |
|
kàrī̃ |
| Fem. |
Sg. |
gall |
(galle) |
gallõ |
galle |
| Pl. |
gallā̃ |
gallo |
|
gallī̃ |
|
[edit] Adjectives
Adjectives may be divided into declinable and indeclinable categories. Declinables are marked, through termination, for the gender, number, case of the nouns they qualify. The set of declinable adjective terminations is similar but greatly simplified in comparison to that of noun terminations[3] —
|
Pl. |
Sg. |
| Declin. |
Masc. |
Dir. |
-ā |
-e |
| Obl. |
-e |
-e, -iā̃ |
| Fem. |
-ī |
-īā̃ |
| Indeclin. |
|
Indeclinable adjectives are completely invariable, and can end in either consonants or vowels (including ā and ī ). Dir. masc. sg. (-ā) is the citation form.
Declinable adjective caṅgā "good" in attributive use
|
Dir. |
Obl. |
Voc. |
Abl. |
Loc./
Instr. |
| Masc. |
Sg. |
caṅgā kòṛā |
caṅge kòṛe |
caṅge kòṛiā |
caṅge kòṛiõ |
(caṅge kòṛe) |
| Pl. |
caṅge kòṛe |
caṅgiā̃ kòṛiā̃ |
caṅgiā̃ kòṛio |
|
| Fem. |
Sg. |
caṅgī sakhī |
caṅgī sakhīe |
| Pl. |
caṅgīā̃ sakhīā̃ |
caṅgīā̃ sakhīo |
|
|
Dir. |
Obl. |
Voc. |
Abl. |
Loc./
Instr. |
| Masc. |
Sg. |
caṅgā kàr |
caṅge kàr |
caṅge kàrā |
caṅge kàrõ |
caṅge kàre |
| Pl. |
caṅge kàr |
caṅgiā̃ kàrā̃ |
caṅgiā̃ kàro |
|
caṅgiā̃ kàrī̃ |
| Fem. |
Sg. |
caṅgī gall |
(caṅgī galle) |
caṅgī gallõ |
caṅgī galle |
| Pl. |
caṅgīā̃ gallā̃ |
caṅgīā̃ gallo |
|
caṅgīā̃ gallī̃ |
|
Indeclinable adjective xarāb "bad" in attributive use
|
Dir. |
Obl. |
Voc. |
Abl. |
Loc./
Instr. |
| Masc. |
Sg. |
xarāb kòṛā |
xarāb kòṛe |
xarāb kòṛiā |
xarāb kòṛiõ |
(xarāb kòṛe) |
| Pl. |
xarāb kòṛe |
xarāb kòṛiā̃ |
xarāb kòṛio |
|
| Fem. |
Sg. |
xarāb sakhī |
xarāb sakhīe |
| Pl. |
xarāb sakhīā̃ |
xarāb sakhīo |
|
|
Dir. |
Obl. |
Voc. |
Abl. |
Loc./
Instr. |
| Masc. |
Sg. |
xarāb kàr |
xarāb kàrā |
xarāb kàrõ |
xarāb kàre |
| Pl. |
xarāb kàr |
xarāb kàrā̃ |
xarāb kàro |
|
xarāb kàrī̃ |
| Fem. |
Sg. |
xarāb gall |
(xarāb galle) |
xarāb gallõ |
xarāb galle |
| Pl. |
xarāb gallā̃ |
xarāb gallo |
|
xarāb gallī̃ |
|
All adjectives can be used either attributively, predicatively, or substantively. Those used substantively are declined as nouns rather than adjectives. Finally, additional inflections are often marked in colloquial speech, e.g. fem. sg. voc. nī sóṇīe kuṛīe! "hey pretty girl!"[3].
[edit] Postpositions
The aforementioned inflectional case system only goes so far on its own, and rather serves as that upon which is built a system of agglutinative suffixes or particles known as postpositions, which parallel English's prepositions. It is their use with a noun or verb that is what necessitates the noun or verb taking the oblique case, and it is with them that the locus of grammatical function or "case-marking" then lies. Such core postpositions include:
Other postpositions are adverbs, following their obliqued targets either directly or with the inflected genitive linker de; e.g. kàr (de) vic "in the house", kòṛe (de) nāḷ "with the stallion". Many such adverbs (the ones locative in nature) also possess corresponding ablative forms[4]; e.g. vic "in" → viccõ "from in, among".
[edit] Pronouns
[edit] Personal
Punjabi has personal pronouns for the first and second persons, while for the third person demonstratives are used, which can be categorized deictically as near and remote. Pronouns do not distinguish gender.
The language has a T-V distinction in tū̃ and tusī̃. This latter "polite" form is also grammatically plural.
| [5] |
1st pn. |
2nd pn. |
| Sg. |
Pl. |
Sg. |
Pl. |
| Direct |
mãĩ |
asī̃ |
tū̃ |
tusī̃ |
| Ergative |
asā̃ |
tusā̃ |
| Dative |
mainū̃ |
sānū̃ |
tainū̃ |
tuā̀nū̃ |
| Ablative |
maithõ |
sāthõ |
taithõ |
tuā̀thõ |
| Genitive |
merā |
sāḍā |
terā |
tuā̀ḍā |
|
|
3rd pn. |
Relative |
Interrogative |
| Near |
Remote |
| Sg. |
Pl. |
Sg. |
Pl. |
Sg. |
Pl. |
Sg. |
Pl. |
| Direct |
é |
ó |
jo |
kauṇ, kī́ |
| Oblique |
é, is |
énā̃ |
ó, us |
ónā̃ |
jí, jis |
jinā̃ |
kí, kis |
kinā̃ |
|
kauṇ and jo are colloquially replaced by kéṛā "which?" jéṛā "which". Indefinites include koī (obl. kise) "some(one)" and kúj "some(thing)". The reflexive pronoun is āp, with a genitive of āpṇā. The pronominal obl. -nā̃ also occurs in ik, iknā̃ "some", hor, hornā̃ "others", sab, sabnā̃ "all".[6]
[edit] Derivates
Based on table in Shackle (2003:604). Indefinites are extended forms of the interrogative set; e.g. kídre "somewhere", kade "sometimes".
|
Interrogative |
Relative |
Demonstrative |
| Near |
Remote |
| Time |
kadõ |
jadõ |
(huṇ) |
odõ |
| Place |
kitthe |
jitthe |
ethe |
othe |
| kitthõ |
jitthõ |
ethõ |
othõ |
| kíddar |
jíddar |
édar |
ódar |
| Manner |
kivẽ |
jivẽ |
evẽ |
ovẽ |
| Quality |
kío jíā |
jíā |
éo jíā |
óo jíā |
| Quantity |
kinnā |
jinnā |
innā |
unnā |
| Size |
kiḍḍā |
jiḍḍā |
eḍā |
oḍā |
[edit] Overview
The Punjabi verbal system is largely structured around a combination of aspect and tense/mood. Like the nominal system, the Punjabi verb involves successive layers of (inflectional) elements to the right of the lexical base.[7]
Punjabi has two aspects in the perfective and the habitual, and possibly a third in the continuous, with each having overt morphological correlates. These are participle forms, inflecting for gender and number by way of vowel termination, like adjectives. The perfective, displaying a number of irregularities and morphophonemic adjustments, is formally the verb stem, followed by -i-, capped off by the agreement vowel. The habitual forms from the imperfective participle; verb stem, plus -d-, then vowel. The continuous forms periphrastically through compounding with the perfective of ráíṇā "to stay".
Derived from hoṇā "to be" are five copula forms: present, past, subjunctive, presumptive, contrafactual (aka "past conditional"). Used both in basic predicative/existential sentences and as verbal auxiliaries to aspectual forms, these constitute the basis of tense and mood.
Non-aspectual forms include the infinitive, the imperative, and the conjunctive. Mentioned morphological conditions such the subjunctive, "presumptive", etc. are applicable to both copula roots for auxiliary usage with aspectual forms and to non-copula roots directly for often unspecified (non-aspectual) finite forms.
Finite verbal agreement is with the nominative subject, except in the transitive perfective, where it can be with the direct object, with the erstwhile subject taking the ergative construction -ne (see postpositions above). The perfective aspect thus displays split ergativity.
Tabled below on the left are the paradigms for the major Gender and Number termination (GN), along the line of that introduced in the adjectives section. To the right are the paradigms for the Person and Number termination (PN), used by the subjunctive (which has 1st pl. -īe) and future (which has 1st pl. -ā̃).
| (GN) |
Sg. |
Pl. |
| Masc. |
-ā |
-e |
| Fem. |
-ī |
-īā̃ |
|
| (PN) |
1st. |
2nd. |
3rd. |
| Sg. |
-ā̃ |
-ẽ |
-e |
| Pl. |
-ā̃/īe |
-o |
-aṇ |
|
The sample verb is intransitive naccṇā "to dance", and the sample inflection is 3rd. masc. sg. (PN = e, GN = ā) where applicable.
|
Non-aspectual |
Aspectual |
| Non-finite |
| Root |
* |
nacc |
Dir. Infinitive/
Gerund/
Obligatory |
*-ṇ-ā |
naccṇā |
| Obl. Infinitive |
*-(a)ṇ |
naccaṇ |
| Abl. Infinitive |
*-ṇ-õ |
naccṇõ |
| Conjunctive |
*-ke |
naccke |
Agentive/
Prospective |
*-(a)ṇ-vāḷ-GN |
naccaṇvāḷā |
|
Adjectivals.
| Perfective |
*-GN ho-GN |
nacciā hoiā |
| Imperfective |
*-d-GN ho-GN |
naccdā hoiā |
Adverbial. Obl. of adjectival.
| Imperfective |
*-d-e, -d-iā̃ |
naccde, naccdiā̃ |
|
| Finite |
| Contingent Future |
*-PN |
nacce |
| Definite Future |
*-PN-g-GN |
naccegā |
Imperatives.[8]
|
Sg. |
Pl. |
| Present |
nácc |
nácco |
| Aorist |
naccī̃ |
naccī̃o |
|
Aspectuals plotted against copulas.
|
Perfective |
Habitual |
Continuous |
| *-(i)-GN |
*-d-GN |
* ráí-GN |
| Present |
h-? |
nacciā hai |
naccdā hai |
nacc ríā hai |
| Past |
s-? |
nacciā sī |
naccdā sī |
nacc ríā sī |
| Subjunctive |
ho-v-PN |
nacciā hove |
naccdā hove |
|
| Presumptive |
ho-v-PN-g-GN |
nacciā hovegā |
naccdā hovegā |
|
| Contrafactual |
hun-d-GN |
nacciā hundā |
naccdā hundā |
|
| Unspecified |
|
nacciā |
naccdā |
|
|
[edit] References
[edit] Bibliography
- Masica, Colin (1991), written at Cambridge, The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521299442, <http://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=indo-aryan+languages>.
- Shackle, Christopher (2003), "Panjabi", in Cardona, George & Dhanesh Jain, The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, 581-621, ISBN 9780415772945, <http://books.google.com/books?id=jPR2OlbTbdkC&pg=PA581&dq=indo-aryan+languages&sig=gNSIxp0p9VDUqKKOWIndIiebfw0>.
