Psychosis

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Psychosis (disambiguation).
Psychosis
Classification and external resources
ICD-9 290-299
OMIM 603342 608923 603175 192430
MedlinePlus 001553
MeSH F03.700.675

Psychosis is a generic psychiatric term for a mental state often described as involving a "loss of contact with reality." People suffering from it are said to be psychotic.

People experiencing psychosis may report hallucinations or delusional beliefs, and may exhibit personality changes and disorganized thinking. This may be accompanied by unusual or bizarre behaviour, as well as difficulty with social interaction and impairment in carrying out the activities of daily living.

A wide variety of nervous system stressors, both organic and functional, can cause a psychotic reaction. This has led to the belief that psychosis is the 'fever' of mental illness—a serious but nonspecific indicator.[1][2]

However, many people have unusual and reality-distorting experiences at some point in their lives, without being impaired or even distressed by these experiences. For example, many people have experienced visions of some kind, and some have even found inspiration or religious revelation in them.[3] As a result, it has been argued that psychosis is not fundamentally separate from normal consciousness, but rather, is on a continuum with normal consciousness.[4] In this view, people who are clinically found to be psychotic may simply be having particularly intense or distressing experiences (see schizotypy).

In contemporary culture, the term "psychotic" is often incorrectly used interchangeably with psychopath.[citation needed]

Psychology
Greek letter 'psi'

History · Areas
RESEARCH

Abnormal
Biological
Cognitive
Developmental
Emotion
Experimental
Evolutionary
Mathematical
Neuropsychology
Personality
Positive
Psychophysics
Social
Transpersonal
APPLIED

Clinical
Educational
Forensic
Health
Industrial &
Organizational
School
Sport
LISTS

Publications
Topics
Therapies
v • d • e
Portal

Contents

[edit] Signs and symptoms

People with psychosis may have one or more of the following:

[edit] Hallucinations

Hallucinations are defined as sensory perception in the absence of external stimuli. They are different from illusions, or perceptual distortions, which are the misperception of external stimuli.[5] Hallucinations may occur in any of the five senses and take on almost any form, which may include simple sensations (such as lights, colors, tastes, and smells) to more meaningful experiences such as seeing and interacting with fully formed animals and people, hearing voices and complex tactile sensations.

Auditory hallucinations, particularly the experience of hearing voices, are a common and often prominent feature of psychosis. Hallucinated voices may talk about, or to the person, and may involve several speakers with distinct personas. Auditory hallucinations tend to be particularly distressing when they are derogatory, commanding or preoccupying. However, the experience of hearing voices need not always be a negative one. Research has shown that the majority of people who hear voices are not in need of psychiatric help.[6] The Hearing Voices Movement has subsequently been created to support voice hearers, regardless of whether they are considered to have a mental illness or not.

[edit] Delusions

Psychosis may involve delusional beliefs, some of which are paranoid in nature. Karl Jaspers classified psychotic delusions into primary and secondary types. Primary delusions are defined as arising out of the blue and not being comprehensible in terms of normal mental processes, whereas secondary delusions may be understood as being influenced by the person's background or current situation (e.g., ethnic or sexual orientation, religious beliefs, superstitious belief).[7]

[edit] Thought disorder

Formal thought disorder describes an underlying disturbance to conscious thought and is classified largely by its effects on speech and writing. Affected persons may show pressure of speech (speaking incessantly and quickly), derailment or flight of ideas (switching topic mid-sentence or inappropriately), thought blocking, and rhyming or punning.

[edit] Lack of insight

One important and puzzling feature of psychosis is usually an accompanying lack of insight into the unusual, strange, or bizarre nature of the person's experience or behaviour.[8] Even in the case of an acute psychosis, people may be completely unaware that their vivid hallucinations and impossible delusions are in any way unrealistic. This is not an absolute, however; insight can vary between individuals and throughout the duration of the psychotic episode.

It was previously believed that lack of insight was related to general cognitive dysfunction[9] or to avoidant coping style.[10] Later studies have found no statistical relationship between insight and cognitive function, either in groups of people who only have schizophrenia,[11] or in groups of psychotic people from various diagnostic categories.[12]

[edit] Classification

In medical practice today, a descriptive approach to psychosis (and to all mental illness) is used, based on behavioral and clinical observations. This approach is adopted in the standard guide to psychiatric diagnoses employed in the United States, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Since the DSM provides a widely-used standard of reference, the description presented here will largely reflect that point of view.

According to the DSM-IV-TR, the term psychosis has had many definitions in the past, both broad and narrow. The broadest was not being able to meet the demands of everyday life. The narrowest was delusions or hallucinations without insight. A middle ground may be delusions, hallucinations with or with out insight, and well as disorganized behavior or speech. Thus, psychosis can be a symptom of mental illness, but it is not a mental illness in its own right. For example, people with schizophrenia often experience psychosis, but so can people with bipolar disorder (manic depression), unipolar depression, delirium, or drug withdrawal.[13][1] People diagnosed with these conditions can also have long periods without psychosis, and some may never experience them again. Conversely, psychosis can occur in people who do not have chronic mental illness (e.g. due to an adverse drug reaction or extreme stress).[14]

Psychosis should be distinguished from:

  • insanity, which is a legal term denoting that a person is not criminally responsible for his or her actions.[15]
  • psychopathy, a general term for a range of personality disorders characterized by lack of empathy, socially manipulative behavior, and occasionally criminality or violence.[16] Despite both being abbreviated to the slang word "psycho", psychosis bears little similarity to the core features of psychopathy, particularly with regard to violence, which rarely occurs in psychosis,[17][18] and distorted perception of reality, which rarely occurs in psychopathy.[19]
  • delirium: a psychotic individual may be able to perform actions that require a high level of intellectual effort in clear consciousness, whereas a delirious individual will have impaired memory and cognitive function.

The DSM-IV-TR lists 9 formal psychotic disorders, but many other disorders may have psychotic symptoms. The formal psychotic disorders are:

[edit] Causes

Causes of symptoms of mental illness were customarily classified as "organic" or "functional". Organic conditions were primarily medical or pathophysiological, whereas, functional conditions are primarily psychiatric or psychological. The DSM-IV-TR no longer classifies psychotic disorders as functional or organic. Rather it lists traditional psychotic illnesses, psychosis due to General Medical conditions, and Substance induced psychosis.

[edit] Psychiatric

Functional causes of psychosis include the following:

A psychotic episode can be significantly affected by mood. For example, people experiencing a psychotic episode in the context of depression may experience persecutory or self-blaming delusions or hallucinations, while people experiencing a psychotic episode in the context of mania may form grandiose delusions.

Stress is known to contribute to and trigger psychotic states. A history of psychologically traumatic events, and the recent experience of a stressful event, can both contribute to the development of psychosis. Short-lived psychosis triggered by stress is known as brief reactive psychosis, and patients may spontaneously recover normal functioning within two weeks.[14] In some rare cases, individuals may remain in a state of full-blown psychosis for many years, or perhaps have attenuated psychotic symptoms (such as low intensity hallucinations) present at most times.

Sleep deprivation has been linked to psychosis.[20][21][22] However, this is not a risk for most people, who merely experience hypnagogic or hypnopompic hallucinations, i.e. unusual sensory experiences or thoughts that appear during waking or drifting off to sleep. These are normal sleep phenomena and are not considered signs of psychosis.[23]

[edit] General medical

Psychosis arising from "organic" (non-psychological) conditions is sometimes known as secondary psychosis. It can be associated with the following pathologies:

Psychosis can even be caused by apparently innocuous ailments such as flu[53][54] or mumps.[55]

[edit] Substance use

Psychotic states may occur after ingesting a variety of substances both legal and illegal and both prescription and non prescription. Psychoactive drug intoxication or withdrawal. Drugs whose use, abuse or withdrawal are implicated include:

Intoxication with drugs that have general depressant effects on the central nervous system (especially alcohol and barbiturates) tend not to cause psychosis during use, and can actually decrease or lessen the impact of symptoms in some people. However, withdrawal from barbiturates and alcohol can be particularly dangerous, leading to psychosis or delirium and other, potentially lethal, withdrawal effects.

Some studies indicate that cannabis use may lower the threshold for psychosis, and thus help to trigger full-blown psychosis in some people.[76] Early studies have been criticized for failing to consider other drugs (such as LSD) that the participants may have used before or during the study, as well as other factors such as pre-existing ("comorbid") mental illness. However, more recent studies with better controls have still found a small increase in risk for psychosis in cannabis users.[77]

It is not clear whether this is a causal link, and it is possible that cannabis use only increases the chance of psychosis in people already predisposed to it; or that people with developing psychosis use cannabis to provide temporary relief of their mental discomfort. The fact that cannabis use has increased over the past few decades, whereas the rate of psychosis has not, suggests that a direct causal link is unlikely for all users.[78]

[edit] Pathophysiology

Brain imaging studies of psychosis, investigating both changes in brain structure and changes in brain function of people undergoing psychotic episodes, have shown mixed results.

The first brain image of an individual with psychosis was completed as far back as 1935 using a technique called pneumoencephalography[79] (a painful and now obsolete procedure where cerebrospinal fluid is drained from around the brain and replaced with air to allow the structure of the brain to show up more clearly on an X-ray picture).

More recently, a 2003 study investigating structural changes in the brains of people with psychosis showed there was significant grey matter reduction in the cortex of people before and after they became psychotic.[80] Findings such as these have led to debate about whether psychosis is itself neurotoxic and whether potentially damaging changes to the brain are related to the length of psychotic episode. Recent research has suggested that this is not the case[81] although further investigation is still ongoing.

Functional brain scans have revealed that the areas of the brain that react to sensory perceptions are active during psychosis. For example, a PET or fMRI scan of a person who claims to be hearing voices may show activation in the auditory cortex, or parts of the brain involved in the perception and understanding of speech.[82]

On the other hand, there is not a clear enough psychological definition of belief to make a comparison between different people particularly valid. Brain imaging studies on delusions have typically relied on correlations of brain activation patterns with the presence of delusional beliefs.[83]

One clear finding is that persons with a tendency to have psychotic experiences seem to show increased activation in the right hemisphere of the brain.[84] This increased level of right hemisphere activation has also been found in healthy people who have high levels of paranormal beliefs[85] and in people who report mystical experiences.[86] It also seems to be the case that people who are more creative are also more likely to show a similar pattern of brain activation.[87] Some researchers have been quick to point out that this in no way suggests that paranormal, mystical or creative experiences are in any way by themselves a symptom of mental illness, as it is still not clear what makes some such experiences beneficial whilst others lead to the impairment or distress of diagnosable mental pathology. However, people who have profoundly different experiences of reality or hold unusual views or opinions have traditionally held a complex role in society, with some being viewed as kooks, whilst others are lauded as prophets or visionaries.

Psychosis has been traditionally linked to the neurotransmitter dopamine. In particular, the dopamine hypothesis of psychosis has been influential and states that psychosis results from an overactivity of dopamine function in the brain, particularly in the mesolimbic pathway. The two major sources of evidence given to support this theory are that dopamine-blocking drugs (i.e. antipsychotics) tend to reduce the intensity of psychotic symptoms, and that drugs which boost dopamine activity (such as amphetamine and cocaine) can trigger psychosis in some people (see amphetamine psychosis).[88] However, increasing evidence in recent times has pointed to a possible dysfunction of the excitory neurotransmitter glutamate, in particular, with the activity of the NMDA receptor. This theory is reinforced by the fact that dissociative NMDA receptor antagonists such as ketamine, PCP and dextromethorphan/detrorphan (at large overdoses) induce a psychotic state more readily than dopinergic stimulants, even at "normal" recreational doses. The symptoms of dissociative intoxication are also considered to mirror the symptoms of schizophrenia more closely, including negative psychotic symptoms than amphetamine psychosis. Dissociative induced psychosis happens on a more reliable and predictable basis than amphetamine psychosis, which usually only occurs in cases of overdose, prolonged use or with sleep deprivation, which can independently produce psychosis. New antipsychotic drugs which act on glutamate and its receptors are currently undergoing clinical trials. (See glutamate hypothesis of psychosis)

The connection between dopamine and psychosis is generally believed to be complex. While antipsychotic drugs immediately block dopamine receptors, they usually take a week or two to reduce the symptoms of psychosis. Moreover, newer and equally effective antipsychotic drugs actually block slightly less dopamine in the brain than older drugs whilst also affecting serotonin function, suggesting the 'dopamine hypothesis' may be oversimplified.[89] Soyka and colleagues found no evidence of dopaminergic dysfunction in people with alcohol-induced psychosis[90] and Zoldan et al. reported moderately successful use of ondansetron, a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist, in the treatment of levodopa psychosis in Parkinson's disease patients.[91]

Psychiatrist David Healy has criticised pharmaceutical companies for promoting simplified biological theories of mental illness that seem to imply the primacy of pharmaceutical treatments while ignoring social and developmental factors which are known to be important influences in the aetiology of psychosis.[92]

Some theories regard many psychotic symptoms to be a problem with the perception of ownership of internally generated thoughts and experiences.[93] For example, the experience of hearing voices may arise from internally generated speech that is mislabeled by the psychotic person as coming from an external source.

[edit] Treatment

The treatment of psychosis depends on the cause or diagnosis or diagnoses (such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and/ or substance intoxication). The first line treatment for many psychotic disorders is antipsychotic medication (oral or intramuscular injection), and sometimes hospitalisation is needed. There is growing evidence that cognitive behavior therapy[94] and family therapy[95] can be effective in managing psychotic symptoms. When other treatments for psychosis are ineffective, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) (aka shock treatment) is sometimes utilized to relieve the underlying symptoms of psychosis due to depression. There is also increasing research suggesting that Animal-Assisted Therapy can contribute to the improvement in general well-being of people with schizophrenia.[96]

[edit] Early intervention in psychosis

Early intervention in psychosis is a relatively new concept based on the observation that identifying and treating someone in the early stages of a psychosis can significantly improve their longer term outcome.[97] This approach advocates the use of an intensive multi-disciplinary approach during what is known as the critical period, where intervention is the most effective, and prevents the long term morbidity associated with chronic psychotic illness.

Newer research into the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy during the early pre-cursory stages of psychosis (also known as the "prodrome" or "at risk mental state") suggests that such input can prevent or delay the onset of psychosis. However further research in this area is needed. [98]

[edit] History

The word psychosis was first used by Ernst von Feuchtersleben in 1845[99] as an alternative to insanity and mania and stems from the Greek ψύχωσις (psychosis), "a giving soul or life to, animating, quickening" and that from ψυχή (psyche), "soul" and the suffix -ωσις (-osis), in this case "abnormal condition"[100][101]. The word was used to distinguish disorders which were thought to be disorders of the mind, as opposed to neurosis, which was thought to stem from a disorder of the nervous system.

The division of the major psychoses into manic depressive insanity (now called bipolar disorder) and dementia praecox (now called schizophrenia) was made by Emil Kraepelin, who attempted to create a synthesis of the various mental disorders identified by 19th century psychiatrists, by grouping diseases together based on classification of common symptoms. Kraepelin used the term 'manic depressive insanity' to describe the whole spectrum of mood disorders, in a far wider sense than it is usually used today. In Kraepelin's classification this would include 'unipolar' clinical depression, as well as bipolar disorder and other mood disorders such as cyclothymia. These are characterised by problems with mood control and the psychotic episodes appear associated with disturbances in mood, and patients will often have periods of normal functioning between psychotic episodes even without medication. Schizophrenia is characterized by psychotic episodes which appear to be unrelated to disturbances in mood, and most non-medicated patients will show signs of disturbance between psychotic episodes.

During the 1960s and 1970s, psychosis was of particular interest to counterculture critics of mainstream psychiatric practice, who argued that it may simply be another way of constructing reality and is not necessarily a sign of illness. For example, R. D. Laing argued that psychosis is a symbolic way of expressing concerns in situations where such views may be unwelcome or uncomfortable to the recipients. He went on to say that psychosis could be also seen as a transcendental experience with healing and spiritual aspects. Thomas Szasz focused on the social implications of labelling people as psychotic; a label he argues unjustly medicalises different views of reality so such unorthodox people can be controlled by society. Psychoanalysis has a detailed account of psychosis which differs markedly from that of psychiatry. Freud and Lacan outlined their perspective on the structure of psychosis in a number of works.

Since the 1970s, the introduction of a Recovery approach to mental health, which has been driven mainly by people who have experienced psychosis, or whatever name is used to describe their experiences, has led to a greater awareness that mental illness is not a lifelong disability, and that there is an expectation that recovery is possible, and probable with effective support.[citation needed]

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b Tsuang, Ming T.; William S. Stone, Stephen V. Faraone (July 2000). "Toward Reformulating the Diagnosis of Schizophrenia". American Journal of Psychiatry 157 (7): 1041-1050. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.7.1041. PubMed. 
  2. ^ DeLage, J. (February 1955). "[Moderate psychosis caused by mumps in a child of nine years.]". Laval Médical 20 (2): 175-183. PubMed. 
  3. ^ Dick, P.K. (1981) VALIS. London: Gollancz. ISBN 0-679-73446-5
  4. ^ Johns, Louise C.; Jim van Os (2001). "The continuity of psychotic experiences in the general population.". Clinical Psychology Review 21 (8): 1125-41. PubMed. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(01)00103-9. PubMed. 
  5. ^ Harper, Douglas (November 2001). hallucinate. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved on October 15, 2006.
  6. ^ Honig, A; Romme MA, Ensink BJ, Escher SD, Pennings MH, deVries MW (1998). Auditory hallucinations: a comparison between patients and nonpatients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. Retrieved on 2006-08-19.
  7. ^ Jaspers, Karl [1963] (1997-11-27). Allgemeine Psychopathologie (General Psychopathology), Translated by J. Hoenig & M.W. Hamilton from German, Reprint edition (in English), Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5775-9. 
  8. ^ Carpenter, William T., Jr., John S. Strauss, and John J. Bartko (December 21, 1973). "Flexible system for the diagnosis of schizophrenia: Report from the WHO international pilot study of schizophrenia" (PDF). Science 182 (4118): 1275-1278. doi:10.1126/science.182.4118.1275. PubMed. 
  9. ^ Lysaker, Paul H.; Morris D. Bell (November 1994). "Insight and cognitive impairment in schizophrenia. Performance on repeated administrations of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 182 (11): 656-660. PubMed. 
  10. ^ Lysaker, Paul H.; Gary J. Bryson, Rebecca S. Lancaster, Jovier D. Evans and Morris D. Bell (January 1, 2003). "Insight in schizophrenia: associations with executive function and coping style". Schizophrenia Research 59 (1): 41-47. doi:10.1016/S0920-9964(01)00383-8. PubMed. 
  11. ^ Freudenreich, Oliver; Thilo Deckersbach and Donald C. Goff (July 2004). "Insight into current symptoms of schizophrenia. Association with frontal cortical function and affect". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 110 (1): 14-20. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2004.00319.x. PubMed. 
  12. ^ Cuesta, Manuel J.; Victor Peralta, Amalia Zarzuela, and Maria Zandio (May 31, 2006). "Insight dimensions and cognitive function in psychosis: a longitudinal study". BMC Psychiatry 6: 26-35. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-6-26. PubMed. 
  13. ^ American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth edition - Text Revision (Published by the American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
  14. ^ a b Jauch, D. A.; William T. Carpenter, Jr. (February 1988). "Reactive psychosis. I. Does the pre-DSM-III concept define a third psychosis?". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 176 (2): 72-81. PubMed. 
  15. ^ Jacobson J.L. and A.M. Jacobson, eds. Psychiatric Secrets (Philadelphia: Hanley and Belfus, 2001)
  16. ^ Hare, R. D. Psychopathy and Antisocial Personality Disorder: A Case of Diagnostic Confusion, Psychiatric Times, February 1996, XIII, Issue 2 Accessed June 26, 2006
  17. ^ Milton, John; Shazad Amin, Swaran P. Singh, Glynn Harrison, Peter Jones, Tim Croudace, Ian Medley, and John Brewin (May 2001). "Aggressive incidents in first-episode psychosis". British Journal of Psychiatry 178: 433-440. doi:10.1192/bjp.178.5.433. PubMed. 
  18. ^ Foley, Sharon R.; Brendan D. Kelly, Mary Clarke, Orfhlaith McTigue, Maurice Gervin, Moyyad Kamali, Conall Larkin, Eadbhard O'Callaghan, and Stephen Browne (January 1, 2005). "Incidence and clinical correlates of aggression and violence at presentation in patients with first episode psychosis". Schizophrenia Research 72 (2-3): 161-168. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2004.03.010. PubMed. 
  19. ^ Nestor, Paul G.; Matthew Kimble, Ileana Berman, and Joel Haycock (January 2002). "Psychosis, Psychopathy, and Homicide: A Preliminary Neuropsychological Inquiry". American Journal of Psychiatry 159 (1): 138-140. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.1.138. PubMed. 
  20. ^ Sharma, Verinder; Dwight Mazmanian (April 2003). "Sleep loss and postpartum psychosis". Bipolar Disorders 5 (2): 98-105. doi:10.1034/j.1399-5618.2003.00015.x. PubMed. 
  21. ^ Chan-Ob, T.; V. Boonyanaruthee (September 1999). "Meditation in association with psychosis". Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand 82 (9): 925-930. PubMed. 
  22. ^ Devillieres, P.; M. Opitz, P. Clervoy, and J. Stephany (May-June 1996). "[Delusion and sleep deprivation]". L'Encéphale 22 (3): 229-231. PubMed. 
  23. ^ Ohayon, M. M.; R. G. Priest, M. Caulet, and C. Guilleminault (October 1996). "Hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations: pathological phenomena?". British Journal of Psychiatry 169 (4): 459-467. PubMed. 
  24. ^ Lisanby, S. H.; C. Kohler, C. L. Swanson, and R. E. Gur (January 1998). "Psychosis Secondary to Brain Tumor". Seminars in clinical neuropsychiatry 3 (1): 12-22. PubMed. 
  25. ^ McKeith, Ian G. (February 2002). "Dementia with Lewy bodies". British Journal of Psychiatry 180: 144-147. doi:10.1192/bjp.180.2.144. PubMed. 
  26. ^ (Spanish) Rodriguez Gomez, Diego; Elvira Gonzalez Vazquez and Óscar Perez Carral (August 16-31, 2005). "Psicosis aguda como inicio de esclerosis multiple / Acute psychosis as the presenting symptom of multiple sclerosis / Psicose aguda como inicio de esclerose multipla". Revista de Neurología 41 (4): 255-256. PubMed. 
  27. ^ Bona, Joseph R.; Sondralyn M. Fackler, Morris J. Fendley and Charles B. Nemeroff (August 1998). "Neurosarcoidosis as a Cause of Refractory Psychosis: A Complicated Case Report". American Journal of Psychiatry 155 (8): 1106-1108. PubMed. 
  28. ^ [1] Fallon BA, Nields JA. "Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness". Am J Psychiatry. 1994 Nov;151(11):1571-83.
  29. ^ Hess A, Buchmann J, Zettl UK, Henschel S, Schlaefke D, Grau G, Benecke R."Borrelia burgdorferi central nervous system infection presenting as an organic schizophrenialike disorder". Biol Psychiatry. 1999 Mar 15;45(6):795.
  30. ^ van den Bergen HA, Smith JP, van der Zwan A. "Lyme psychosis". Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 1993 Oct 9;137(41):2098-100.
  31. ^ Kararizou E, Mitsonis C, Dimopoulos N, Gkiatas K, Markou I, Kalfakis N. "Psychosis or simply a new manifestation of neurosyphilis?" J Int Med Res. 2006 May-Jun;34(3):335-7.
  32. ^ Brooke D, Jamie P, Slack R, Sulaiman M, Tyrer P. "Neurosyphilis--a treatable psychosis". Br J Psychiatry. 1987 Oct;151:556.
  33. ^ Lesser JM, Hughes S. "Psychosis-related disturbances. Psychosis, agitation, and disinhibition in Alzheimer's disease: definitions and treatment options." Geriatrics. 2006 Dec;61(12):14-20. Review.
  34. ^ Wedekind S."Depressive syndrome, psychoses, dementia: frequent manifestations in Parkinson disease" MMW Fortschr Med. 2005 Jun 2;147(22):11. German.
  35. ^ Rossman, Phillip L.; Robert M. Vock (September 1956). "Postpartum Tetany and Psychosis Due to Hypocalcemia" (PDF). California Medicine 85 (3): 190-193. PubMed. 
  36. ^ Jana, D. K.; L. Romano-Jana (October 1973). "Hypernatremic psychosis in the elderly: case reports". Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 21 (10): 473-477. PubMed. 
  37. ^ Haensch, C. A.; G. Hennen and J. Jorg (April 1996). "[Reversible exogenous psychosis in thiazide-induced hyponatremia of 97 mmol/l]". Der Nervenarzt 67 (4): 319-322. PubMed. 
  38. ^ Hafez, H.; J. S. Strauss, M. D. Aronson, and C. Holt (June 1984). "Hypokalemia-induced psychosis in a chronic schizophrenic patient". Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 45 (6): 277-279. PubMed. 
  39. ^ Konstantakos, Anastasios K.; Enrique Grisoni (May 25, 2006). Hypomagnesemia. eMedicine. WebMD. Retrieved on October 16, 2006.
  40. ^ Velasco, P. Joel; Manoochehr Manshadi, Kevin Breen, and Steven Lippmann (December 1999). "Psychiatric Aspects of Parathyroid Disease". Psychosomatics 40 (6): 486-490. PubMed. 
  41. ^ Rosenthal, M.; I. Gil and B. Habot (1997). "Primary hyperparathyroidism: neuropsychiatric manifestations and case report". Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences 34 (2): 122-125. PubMed. 
  42. ^ Nanji, A. A. (November 1984). "The psychiatric aspect of hypophosphatemia". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 29 (7): 599-600. PubMed. 
  43. ^ Padder, Tanveer, Aparna Udyawar, Nouman Azhar, and Kamil Jaghab (December 2005) "Acute Hypoglycemia Presenting as Acute Psychosis" in Psychiatry online. Retrieved on 2006-09-27
  44. ^ Robert, M.; R. Sunitha, and N. K. Thulaseedharan (March 2006). "Neuropsychiatric manifestations systemic lupus erythematosus: A study from South India". Neurology India 54 (1): 75-77. PubMed. 
  45. ^ Evans, Dwight L.; Karen I. Mason, Jane Leserman, Russell Bauer And John Petitto (2002-02-01). "Chapter 90: Neuropsychiatric Manifestations of HIV-1 Infection and AIDS", in Kenneth L Davis, Dennis Charney, Joseph T Coyle, Charles Nemeroff: Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress, 5th, Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1281-1301. ISBN 0-7817-2837-1. Retrieved on 2006-10-16. 
  46. ^ Lowinger, Paul (July 1959). "LEPROSY AND PSYCHOSIS". American Journal of Psychiatry 116 (1): 32-37. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.116.1.32. PubMed. 
  47. ^ Ponomareff, G. L. (June 1965). "PHENOMENOLOGY OF DELUSIONS IN A CASE OF LEPROSY" (PDF). American Journal of Psychiatry 121 (12): 1211. PubMed. 
  48. ^ Tilluckdharry, C. C.; D. D. Chaddee, R. Doon, and J. Nehall (March 1996). "A case of vivax malaria presenting with psychosis". West Indian Medical Journal 45 (1): 39-40. PubMed. 
  49. ^ Denier C, Orgibet A, Roffi F, Jouvent E, Buhl C, Niel F, Boespflug-Tanguy O, Said G, Ducreux D (2007). "Adult-onset vanishing white matter leukoencephalopathy presenting as psychosis". Neurology 68 (18): 1538-9. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000260701.76868.44. PMID 17470759. 
  50. ^ Hermle L, Becker FW, Egan PJ, Kolb G, Wesiack B, Spitzer M (1997). "[Metachromatic leukodystrophy simulating schizophrenia-like psychosis]" (in German). Der Nervenarzt 68 (9): 754-8. PMID 9411279. 
  51. ^ Black DN, Taber KH, Hurley RA (2003). "Metachromatic leukodystrophy: a model for the study of psychosis". The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences 15 (3): 289-93. PMID 12928504. free full text
  52. ^ Kumperscak HG, Paschke E, Gradisnik P, Vidmar J, Bradac SU (2005). "Adult metachromatic leukodystrophy: disorganized schizophrenia-like symptoms and postpartum depression in 2 sisters". Journal of psychiatry & neuroscience : JPN 30 (1): 33-6. PMID 15644995. free full text
  53. ^ Steinberg, D.; S. R. Hirsch, S. D. Marston, K. Reynolds, and R. N. Sutton (May 1972). "Influenza infection causing manic psychosis". British Journal of Psychiatry 120 (558): 531-535. PubMed. 
  54. ^ Maurizi, C. P. (February 1985). "Influenza and mania: a possible connection with the locus ceruleus". Southern Medical Journal 78 (2): 207-209. PubMed. 
  55. ^ Keddie, K. M. (August 1965). "Toxic psychosis following mumps". British Journal of Psychiatry 111: 691-696. PubMed. 
  56. ^ Larson, Michael (2006-03-30). Alcohol-Related Psychosis. eMedicine. WebMD. Retrieved on September 27, 2006.
  57. ^ Soyka, Michael (March 1990). "Psychopathological characteristics in alcohol hallucinosis and paranoid schizophrenia.". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 81 (3): 255-9. PubMed. 
  58. ^ Gossman, William (November 19, 2005). Delirium Tremens. eMedicine. WebMD. Retrieved on October 16, 2006.
  59. ^ Sexton, J. D.; D. J. Pronchik (September 1997). "Diphenhydramine-induced psychosis with therapeutic doses". American Journal of Emergency Medicine 15 (5): 548-549. PubMed. 
  60. ^ Lang, K.; H. Sigusch, and S. Muller (December 8, 1995). "[An anticholinergic syndrome with hallucinatory psychosis after diphenhydramine poisoning]". Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 120 (49): 1695-1698. PubMed. 
  61. ^ Schreiber, W.; A. M. Pauls and J. C. Kreig (February 5, 1988). "[Toxic psychosis as an acute manifestation of diphenhydramine poisoning]". Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 113 (5): 180-183. PubMed. 
  62. ^ Timnak, Charles; Ondria Gleason (January-February 2004). "Promethazine-Induced Psychosis in a 16-Year-Old Girl". Psychosomatics 45 (1): 89-90. doi:10.1176/appi.psy.45.1.89. PubMed. 
  63. ^ Official Journal of American Pediatrics - PEDIATRICS Vol. 108 No. 3 September 2001, p. e52
  64. ^ de Paola, Luciano; Maria Joana Mäder, Francisco M.B. Germiniani, Patrícia Coral, Jorge A.A. Zavala, Djon J. Watzo, Jorge Kanegusuku, Carlos E.S. Silvado, and Lineu C. Werneck (June 2004). "Bizarre behavior during intracarotid sodium amytal testing (Wada test): Are they predictable?". Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria 62 (2B): 444-448. doi:10.1590/S0004-282X2004000300012. PubMed. 
  65. ^ Sarrecchia, C.; P. Sordillo, G. Conte, and G. Rocchi (October-December 1998). "[Barbiturate withdrawal syndrome: a case associated with the abuse of a headache medication]". Annali Italiani di Medicina Interna 13 (4): 237-239. PubMed. 
  66. ^ White, M. C.; J. J. Silverman, and J. W. Harbison (February 1982). "Psychosis associated with clonazepam therapy for blepharospasm". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 170 (2): 117-9. PubMed. 
  67. ^ Jaffe, R.; E. Gibson (June 1986). "Clonazepam withdrawal psychosis". Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 6 (3): 193. PubMed. 
  68. ^ Hallberg, R. J.; K. Lessler and F. J. Kane (August 1964). "KORSAKOFF-LIKE PSYCHOSIS ASSOCIATED WITH BENZODIAZEPINE OVERDOSAGE" (PDF). American Journal of Psychiatry 121 (2): 188-189. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.121.2.188. PubMed. 
  69. ^ Bergman, K. R.; C. Pearson, G. W. Waltz, and R. Evans III year = 1980. "Atropine-induced psychosis. An unusual complication of therapy with inhaled atropine sulfate" (Infotrieve). Chest 78 (6): 891-893. doi:10.1378/chest.78.6.891. PubMed. 
  70. ^ Varghese, S.; N. Vettath, K. Iyer, J. M. Puliyel, and M. M. Puliyel (June 1990). "Ocular atropine induced psychosis--is there a direct access route to the brain?". Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 38 (6): 444-445. PubMed. 
  71. ^ Barak, Segev; Ina Weiner (September 13, 2006). "Scopolamine Induces Disruption of Latent Inhibition Which is Prevented by Antipsychotic Drugs and an Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitor". Neuropsychopharmacology 32: 989. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301208. PubMed. 
  72. ^ Kurzbaum, Alberto; Claudia Simsolo, Ludmilla Kvasha and Arnon Blum (July 2001). "Toxic Delirium due to Datura Stramonium" (PDF). Israel Medical Association Journal 3 (7): 538-539. PubMed. 
  73. ^ Ettinger AB. "Psychotropic effects of antiepileptic drugs". Neurology. 2006 Dec 12;67(11):1916-25.
  74. ^ a b c d e f Diaz, Jaime. How Drugs Influence Behavior. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1996.
  75. ^ Brady, K. T.; R. B. Lydiard, R. Malcolm, and J. C. Ballenger (December 1991). "Cocaine-induced psychosis.". Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 52 (12): 509-512. PubMed. 
  76. ^ Degenhardt, L; Smith J, Steel R, Johnstone CE, Frith CD (2003). "Editorial: The link between cannabis use and psychosis: furthering the debate.". Psychological Medicine 33: 3-6. PubMed. PMID 12537030. 
  77. ^ Moore, TH; Zammit S, Lingford-Hughes A, Barnes TR, Jones PB, Burke M, Lewis G (28). "Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review.". Lancet 370: 319-28. PMID 17662880. 
  78. ^ Degenhardt L, Hall W, Lynskey M (2001). "Comorbidity between cannabis use and psychosis: Modelling some possible relationships." (PDF). Technical Report No. 121.. . Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre. Retrieved on 2006-08-19.
  79. ^ Moore, M T; Nathan D, Elliot AR, Laubach C (1935). "Encephalographic studies in mental disease.". American Journal of Psychiatry 92 (1): 43-67. 
  80. ^ Pantelis, C; Velakoulis D, McGorry PD, Wood SJ, Suckling J, Phillips, LJ, Yung AR, Bullmore ET, Brewer W, Soulsby B, Desmond, P, McGuire PK (2003). "Neuroanatomical abnormalities before and after onset of psychosis: a cross-sectional and longitudinal MRI comparison.". Lancet 25 (361 (9354)): 281-8. PubMed. PMID 12559861. 
  81. ^ Ho, BC; Alicata D, Ward J, Moser DJ, O'Leary DS, Arndt S, Andreasen NC (2003). "Untreated initial psychosis: relation to cognitive deficits and brain morphology in first-episode schizophrenia.". American Journal of Psychiatry 160 (1): 142-148. PubMed. PMID 12505813. 
  82. ^ Copolov DL, Seal ML, Maruff P, Ulusoy R, Wong MT, Tochon-Danguy HJ, Egan GF. (2003) Cortical activation associated with the experience of auditory hallucinations and perception of human speech in schizophrenia: a PET correlation study. Psychiatry Res, 122 (3), 139-52. PMID 12694889.
  83. ^ Bell, V., Halligan, P.W. & Ellis, H.D. (2006) A Cognitive Neuroscience of Belief. In P.W. Halligan & M. Aylward (eds) The Power of Belief. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  84. ^ Lohr, JB; Caligiuri MP (1997). "Lateralized hemispheric dysfunction in the major psychotic disorders: historical perspectives and findings from a study of motor asymmetry in older patients.". Schizophrophrenia Research 30 (27 (2-3)): 191-8. PubMed. PMID 9416648. 
  85. ^ Pizaagalli, D; Lehmann D, Gianotti L, Koenig T, Tanaka H, Wackermann J, Brugger P. (2000). "Brain electric correlates of strong belief in paranormal phenomena: intracerebral EEG source and regional Omega complexity analyses.". Psychiatry Research 100 (3): 139-154. PubMed. PMID 11120441. 
  86. ^ Makarec, K; Persinger, MA (1985). "Temporal lobe signs: electroencephalographic validity and enhanced scores in special populations.". Perceptual and Motor Skills 60 (3): 831-842. PubMed. PMID 3927256. 
  87. ^ Weinstein, S; Graves RE (2002). "Are creativity and schizotypy products of a right hemisphere bias?". Brain and Cognition 49 (1): 138-151. PubMed. PMID 12027399. 
  88. ^ Kapur S, Mizrahi R, Li M. (2005) From dopamine to salience to psychosis - linking biology, pharmacology and phenomenology of psychosis. Schizophr Res, 79 (1), 59-68. PMID 16005191
  89. ^ Jones, H. M., & Pilowsky, L. S. (2002) Dopamine and antipsychotic drug action revisited. British Journal of Psychiatry, 181, 271-275. PMID 12356650
  90. ^ Soyka, Michael; Thomas Zetzsche, Stefan Dresel, and Klaus Tatsch (May 2000). "FDG-PET and IBZM-SPECT Suggest Reduced Thalamic Activity but No Dopaminergic Dysfunction in Chronic Alcohol Hallucinosis". Journal of Neuropsychiatry & Clinical Neurosciences 12 (2): 287-288. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.12.2.287. PubMed. 
  91. ^ Zoldan, J.; G. Friedberg, M. Livneh, and E. Melamed. (July 1995). "Psychosis in advanced Parkinson's disease: treatment with ondansetron, a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist". Neurology 45 (7): 1305-1308. PubMed. 
  92. ^ Healy, David (2002). The Creation of Psychopharmacology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-00619-4. 
  93. ^ Blakemore, SJ; Smith J, Steel R, Johnstone CE, Frith CD (2000). "The perception of self-produced sensory stimuli in patients with auditory hallucinations and passivity experiences: evidence for a breakdown in self-monitoring.". Psychological Medicine 30 (5): 1131-9. PubMed. PMID 12027049. 
  94. ^ Birchwood, M; Trower P (2006). "The future of cognitive-behavioural therapy for psychosis: not a quasi-neuroleptic.". British Journal of Psychiatry 188: 108-108. PMID 16449695. 
  95. ^ Haddock, G; Lewis S (2005). "Psychological interventions in early psychosis.". Schizophrenia Bulletin 31 (3): 697-704. PMID 16006594. 
  96. ^ Nathans-Barel, I.; P. Feldman, B. Berger, I. Modai and H. Silver (2005). "Animal-assisted therapy ameliorates anhedonia in schizophrenia patients". Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 74 (1): 31-35. 
  97. ^ Birchwood, M; P. Todd, C. Jackson (1998). "Early Intervention in Psychosis: The Critical Period Hypothesis.". British Journal of Psychiatry 172 (33): 53-59. 
  98. ^ French, Paul; Anthony Morrison (2004). Early Detection and cognitive therapy for people at high risk of developing psychosis. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-470-86314-5. 
  99. ^ Beer, M D (1995). "Psychosis: from mental disorder to disease concept.". Hist Psychiatry 6 (22(II)): 177-200. PubMed. PMID 11639691. 
  100. ^ Psychosis, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus
  101. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper (2001). Retrieved on 2006-08-19.

[edit] Further reading

  • Sims, A. (2002) Symptoms in the mind: An introduction to descriptive psychopathology (3rd edition). Edinburgh: Elsevier Science Ltd. ISBN 0-7020-2627-1

[edit] Personal accounts

[edit] External links

v • d • e
Medicine > Psychiatry
Subspecialties
Societies
Related topics
Lists