Principality of Zeta
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Zeta (Serbian Cyrillic: Зета, Latin: Zenta) was a principality whose territory was mostly Serbian territories that approximately encompass present-day Republic of Montenegro. It was named after the Zeta River.
Zeta was first noted as a vassalaged part of Rascia, ruled by heirs to the Serbian throne from the Nemanjić dynasty. When the principal heir became Grand Župan of Rascia or King of Serbs, the fief would be granted to second in line to the throne.
Zeta gained independence from Rascia in 1356, under the leadership of Balša I.
During the late 15th century, Zeta became better known as Montenegro, which means Black Mountain in Italian. It was succeeded by theocratic Montenegro and Ottoman-ruled Montenegro.
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[edit] History
[edit] Serbian Rule
After Constantin Bodin's death, fighting among his potential successors weakened the state of Duklja and the region succumbed to Rascia's (Serbia's) reign. Between 1183 and 1186, the Grand Župan of Rascia/Serbia, Stefan Nemanja, conquered Zeta and ended the first period of the Montenegrin state.
With the conquest of Duklja/Zeta, Nemanja is said to have devastated entire coastal towns which subsequently never recovered. During that tide of destruction, Nemanja also razed monuments of Latin literacy by burning local churches and manuscripts. It is claimed that he persecuted the Bogomils, and expelled the Greeks from the area.
Zeta's population was forced to convert to Orthodox Christianity, and archbishop Grgur's escape in 1185 formally ended the existence of the Archdiocese in Bar.
In 1190, Stefan Nemanja's son, Vukan II, asserted his right to the Dukljan crown. He converted to Catholicism to accommodate Zeta's feudal lords and restored the Archdiocese in Bar with the approval of Pope Innocent III. In 1219, the regent of Zeta and King Vukan's oldest son, Đorđe Nemanjić, became king of Duklja/Zeta. He was succeeded by his second oldest son, Uroš I, who built the 'Uspenje Bogorodice' monastery in Morača.
Between 1276 and 1309, Zeta was ruled by Queen Jelena, a Catholic from the Kurtene family, and widow of Rascia's/Serbia's King Uroš I. She championed Zeta's autonomy and restored around 50 monasteries in the region--- most notably Saint Srđ and Vakh on the Bojana River. The name Crna Gora (Montenegro) was formally mentioned for the first time in 1296, in the charter of St. Nicholas' monastery in Vranjina. This charter was issued by Rascia's King Milutin (Uroš II) Nemanjić, who was the youngest son of Uroš I and Jelena Kurtene. Crna Gora (Montenegro) was to be understood as the highland region under Mount Lovćen, within the confines of Zeta. By the beginning of the 14th century, during King Milutin (Uroš II) Nemanjić's reign, the Archdiocese in Bar was the strongest feudal lord in Zeta.
From 1309 to 1321, in order to appease Zeta's lords, the state was co-ruled by the oldest son of Rascia's/Serbia's Milutin (Uroš II) Nemanjić, young King Stefan (Uroš III) Dečanski. Similarly, from 1321 to 1331, Stefan's young son Dušan (Uroš IV) Nemanjić, the future Serbian king and tzar, co-ruled Zeta with his father.
After the Serbian tzar Dušan (Uroš IV) Nemanjić's death in 1355, the Serbian Kingdom started to crumble and its holdings were divided among Prince (Knjaz) Lazar Hrebeljanović, the short-lived Bosnian state of Ban Tvrtko I, which existed from 1353 to 1391, and a semi-independent chiefdom of Zeta under the Balšić dynasty, which increasingly asserted Zeta's sovereignty. Zeta thus, regained its independence under the second Montenegrin dynasty, the Balšić dynasty, whose founder Balša I came to power in 1356.
[edit] The Balšić Dynasty
[edit] Independence of Zeta
The most prosperous and mightiest era of Rascia's history was brought to an end by the death of the first Serbian Tzar Dušan (Uroš IV) Nemanjić in 1355. Seizing the opportunity, the leading dynasty in Zeta, the Balšićs, reasserted Zeta's independence in 1356.
[edit] Mention of the Balšić Family
The very first written document relating to the Balšić family is in the chart of Uroš issued to the Republic of Dubrovnik from 1360.Their origin was disputed to be either Albanian or Roman, which lead many historians to believe that they came from Naples.
[edit] Balša I
The founder of the family and the Balšić dynasty, Balša I, originally controlled one village but with the help of his sons Stracimir, Đurađ I and Balša II, he conquered Upper Zeta and the towns of Skadar, Kotor and Bar.
Đurađ I and Balša II ruled Zeta from 1362 to 1378 and 1378 to 1385, respectively. However, the most influential Balšić is considered to have been Đurađ I, who enlarged and consolidated Zeta's renewed power and conquered Prizren (a city in present-day Kosovo).
[edit] Đurađ I
Đurađ I's rule of Zeta extended from 1362 to 1378. During this time, he forged an alliance with King Vukašin Mrnjavčević, but Vukašin Mrnjavčević was killed soon afterwards at the Battle of Marica in 1371. Đurađ I married Vukašin's daughter, Olivera.
Đurađ I ran Zeta as a modern ruler of the time. Zeta's institutions were functioning well, while the coastal towns enjoyed considerable autonomy. Commerce was well developed and enhanced by the existence of Zeta's currency, the dinar.
Đurađ I allied with his neighbors Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović of Serbia, Ban Tvrtko I of Bosnia, Prince Nikola I Gorjanski and King Louis I of Hungary, to defeat ambitious the Herzegovian ruler Nikola Altomanović in 1373. In spite of this, the defeated and blinded Nikola Altomanović found a refuge in Zeta until his death.
While he was battling in the south of Kosovo, Đurađ's younger brother Balša II, married Komnina, a close cousin of the mighty Serbian Tzar Dušan (Uroš IV) Nemanjić's wife, Jelena. By marrying Komnina, Đurađ II received a generous dowry in land, including Avlona, Berat, Kanina, and some additional strategically important regions.
Upon the division of the conquered Herzegovina, the Balšićs took the towns of Trebinje, Konavle and Dračevica. Subsequent dispute over these towns led to a conflict between Zeta and Bosnia, led by Ban Tvrtko I Kotromanić. The fight was eventually won by Bosnia, supported by Hungary, after Đurađ's death in 1378.
[edit] Balša II
In 1378, following Đurađ's death, Balša II became king of Zeta. In 1382, Ban Tvrtko I Kotromanić of Bosnia conquered Dračevica, and built the town later known as Herceg-Novi (a city in present-day Montenegro). The Hungarians supported Ban Tvrtko I Kotromanić because he, as well as Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović of Serbia recognized Hungarian rule while Balša II refused to do so. Also, both Tvrtko I Kotromanić and Balša II had aspirations to ascend to the throne of the Nemanjić state of Rascia.
During his rule, Balša II's could not maintain the control of the feudal lords as his predecessor did. His power was strong only in region around Skadar, (a city in present-day Albania) and in the eastern part of Zeta. The most prominent feudal lords who did not recognize Balsa's rule was the Crnojević family, who were consistent encouraged by the Venetians to rebel against Balša II.
Balša II needed four attempts to conquer Durrës, an important commercial and strategic center. Defeated, Karl Thopia appealed to the Turks for help. Turkish forces led by Hajrudin Pasha inflicted heavy damange to Balša II's forces and killed Balša II at a major battle at Saurian Field near Berat, in 1385.
[edit] Đurađ II
The successor of Balša II, Đurađ II Stracimirović Balšić, ruled Zeta from 1385 to 1403, was Balša's nephew and son of Stracimir. He also had difficulties controlling the local feudal lords, with no control over the feudal lords in the entire Upper Zeta. In addition, the feudal lords around Onogošt (a city in present-day Montenegro now known as Nikšić) accepted Venetian protection which controlled parts of the state. The most prominent of those lords was Radič Crnojević, who controlled the area between Budva and Mount Lovćen. Moreover, a number of Arbanas feudal lords, particularly Lekë Dukagjini and Paul Dukagjini joined the conspiracy against Đurađ II.
With this in mind as well as the constant danger from the Turks, Đurađ II maintained strong family ties with the Serbian ruler of the time, Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović. In order to help Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović defend his state from Ottoman invasion, Đurađ II sent his troops along with Ban Tvrtko I Kotromanić's forces (with whom he had a dispute over Kotor) to meet the Ottoman army at Kosovo Polje. Despite Sultan Murad I's death, the Orthodox coalition suffered a defeat at the epic Battle of Kosovo in 1389. According to the sources, Đurađ II did not participate in the Battle of Kosovo but was in Ulcinj in Southern Zeta.
In later years, Đurađ II played skillful diplomatic games to enhance the rivalry between the Turks and the Venetians. To that purpose, he offered Skadar to both hoping that eventually he would be able to keep it. After two years of fighting, Turks and Venetians agreed to leave Shkodër to Đurađ II, who was neutral in the conflict. Similarly, the rivalry between Venetians and the Hungarians brought a benefit to Balša II. After the serious defeat of his forces by Turks near Nikopolje, the Hungarian King Sigismund gave him the title of Prince of Arbania and the control over Hvar and Korčula.
In the feud between Turkish vassal, Đurađ Branković and his uncle, Stefan Lazarević (son of Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović), who later received the title of Byzantine despot, Đurađ II sided with Stefan. Due to Đurađ's support, Stefan defeated Turkish forces led by Đurađ Branković in the Battle of Gračanica on Kosovo field in June 21, 1402
[edit] Balša III
In 1403, Đurađ II's 17-year old son, Balša III, inherited the throne of Zeta after his father died as a consequence of the injuries he suffered in the Battle of Gračanica. As he was young and unexperienced, his main advisor was his mother Jelena, a sister of the Serbian ruler, Stefan Lazarević. Under her influence, Balša III declared Serbian Orthodox Christianity as the official state religion; however, Catholicism was tolerated.
Balša III continued the policies of his father. In 1418, took Skadar from Venetians, but lost the town of Budva. In the following year, 1419, he made an unsuccessful attempt to recapture Budva. Afterwards went to Belgrade to ask for help from Stefan Lazarević, but never returned to Zeta.
[edit] Zeta in the Serbian Despotate (1421-1451)
[edit] Stefan Lazarević
In 1421, before his death and under the influence of his mother Jelena, Balša III passed the rule of Zeta to Stefan Lazarević. 'Despot' Stefan fought Venetians and regained Bar in mid-1423, and in the following year he sent his nephew Đurađ Branković, who regaining Drivast and Ulcinium (Ulcinj).
[edit] Đurađ Branković
In 1427, Stefan Lazarević died and Zeta was inherited by his nephew, the Serbian despot Đurađ Branković who, at the time, needed to confront the more serious threat of the Ottoman Empire, and so could not pay particular attention to Zeta. Branković was in a hard position in his negotiations with Ottomans, and he had to meet the harsh demands made by Sultan Murad II in order to retain the throne of Serbia. Because of these problems, and the rising power of the Crnojević family, Đurađ could not keep Zeta under his rule.
[edit] The Crnojević Dynasty
[edit] Ascent to Power
The Crnojević dynasty began with two brothers Đurađ and Lješ (Aleksa) Đurašević-Crnojević, from the area around Mount Lovćen. But far more important roles in establishing this family's rule in Zeta were played by Stefan I Crnojević (1451-1465) and his son Ivan Crnojević (1465-1490). Ivan's son Đurađ Crnojević (1490-1496) was the last ruler from this dynasty. Beginning with the Crnojevic dynasty rule, Zeta began to be referred to commonly as Crna Gora or Montenegro.
[edit] Importance of rule
The Crnojević dynasty is important in Montenegrin history for at least three reasons.
Firstly, this dynasty's rule is a historical link between the tradition of the independent states of Duklja and Zeta and the modern history of independent Montenegro. During their rule, the Crnojevićs witnessed the powerful Ottoman armies easily crush neighbouring countries. Serbia fell after the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, Bosnia in 1463, and Herzegovina in 1483. To prevent a similar fate for Montenegro, Ivan Crnojević moved his capital from Žabljak Crnojevića on Lake Skadar into the highland valley of Lovćenski Dolac (precursor to the capital Cetinje) near Mount Lovćen in 1482. This event marks the beginning of history of Montenegro and its capital, Cetinje, which was built around the Cetinje monastery.
Secondly, throughout the Crnojević rule, Montenegro remained independent, sustaining and extending what Montenegrins regard as a precious tradition of sovereignty. And while the territory of Montenegro became smaller relative to the earlier states of Duklja and Zeta, it solidified a national spirit of independence into an exceptional devotion to country and freedom.
Also, the Crnojevićs are responsible for Montenegrins' claim of an unusual primacy in the cultural development of southern Europe, introducing the first printing press in southern Europe and printing the first books in the region.
[edit] Stefan I
Stefan I Crnojević consolidated his power in Zeta and ruled for 14 years, from 1451 until 1465. During his rule, he saw neighbouring Serbia completely subdued by Turkey soon after the death of Đurađ Branković. Under Stefan Crnojević, Montenegro comprised the Lovćen area around Cetinje, 51 municipalities which included Rijeka Crnojevića (Crnojević River), the valley of the River Zeta and the clans Bjelopavlići, Pješivći, Malonsići, Piperi, Hoti, Klimenti (Kelmendi) and other tribes. The population of the territories controlled by Stefan Crnojević was about 30,000. Total population of Zeta/Montenegro including regions under the Venetian, Kosača's and Turkish rule, was about 80,000 people.
Capitalising on the weak position of the despot Đurađ, the Venetians and Herzegovian, despot Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, conquered parts of Đurađ's territory. Since Kosača was an Ottoman vassal, Stefan I Crnojević, who had already established himself as the head of Crnojević dynasty (around 1451) in Upper Zeta/Montenegro was forced to make territorial concessions. In addition, Kosača took Stefan's son, Ivan as a hostage hoping that this will force Stefan to side with him when needed.
Stefan married Mara, a daughter of a prominent Albanian, Gjon Kastrioti, whose son was Albanian national hero, Skanderbeg. In 1455, Stefan entered into an agreement with his ally, Venice, stipulating that Montenegro would recognize the nominal supremacy of Venice while maintaining its factual independence in virtually every respect. The agreement also stipulated that Montenegro would assist Venice militarily on specific occasions in exchange for an annual provision. But in all other respects, Stefan's rule in Montenegro was undisputed.
[edit] Ivan
Ivan Crnojević became ruler of Zeta/Montenegro in 1465. His rule lasted until 1490. Immediately after taking the throne, Ivan attacked Venice breaking the alliance his father had forged. He fought Venice in an attempt to capture the town of Kotor. He had some success, gaining increasing support from the local coastal tribes of Grbalj and Paštrovići in his quest to assert Montenegrin control over the Bay of Kotor. But when the Ottoman campaign in northern Albania and Bosnia convinced him that the main source of danger to his country was to the East, he sought a compromise with Venice. Ivan fought numerous battles against the Turks in order to defend his country's freedom and sovereignty.
Zeta and Venice fought against the Ottoman Empire The war between these two countries ended with the successful defense of Skadar, where the Venetian and Zetan defenders fought off forces of against Turkish Sultan Mehmed II and eventually won the war in 1474. However, this victory was short-lived, since the Sultan's forces conquered Skadar in 1479 and signed a peace treaty with Venice. Ivan had aspirations to organise an anti-Turkish alliance consisting of Napolitan, Venetian, Hungarian, and Zetan forces. However, his dream could not be fulfilled since the Venetians did not dare to give help to Ivan after their peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire in 1479. Left on his own, Ivan single-handedly managed to preserve sovereignty of Zeta/Montenegro from frequent Ottoman offensives.
Knowing that the Ottomans would try to punish him for fighting on the Venetian side, and in order to preserve his country's independence, in 1482 he moved his capital from Žabljak on Lake Skadar to the mountainous area of Dolac, under Mount Lovćen. There he built the Orthodox Christian monastery around which the capital, Cetinje, would emerge. This event marks the end of the history of Zeta, since the country permanently changed its name to Montenegro during Đurađ Crnojević's rise to power.
[edit] Đurađ IV
Đurađ IV Crnojević became ruler of Zeta in 1490. His rule lasted until 1496. Đurađ, Ivan's oldest son, was an educated ruler. He is most famous for one historical act: he used the printing press brought to Cetinje by his father to print the first books in southeastern Europe, in 1493. The Crnojević printing press marked the beginning of the printed word among southern Slavs. The press operated from 1493 through 1496, turning out religious books, five of which have been preserved: Oktoih prvoglasnik, Oktoih petoglasnik, Psaltir, Molitvenik, and Četvorojevanđelje. Đurađ managed the printing of the books, wrote prefaces and afterwords, and developed sophisticated tables of Psalms with the lunar calendar. The books from the Crnojević press were printed in two colors, red and black, and were richly ornamented. They served as models for many of the subsequent books printed in Cyrillic alphabet.
After the rule of Zeta/Montenegro was handed to Đurađ, his youngest brother, Staniša, with no chance to succeed his father, Ivan, went to Istanbul and converted to Islam. As a loyal servant of the Sultan, Staniša later became the Shkodrian 'sandzak-beg' under the name of Skender. His brothers, Đurađ and Stefan II continued the struggle against Ottomans. The historical facts are unclear and disputed, but it seems that Venetians, frustrated by their own inability to subdue the Crnojević to their own interests, managed to kill Stefan and deceitfully sent Đurađ to Istanbul. Principally, Đurađ visited Venice in order to work on the "wide anti-Turkish campaign" but was kept in captivity for some time while his brother, Stefan II, was defending his country against Ottoman forces. It is likely that upon his returned to Zeta/Montenegro, Đurađ was kidnapped by the Venetian agents and sent to Istanbul via Shkodër (Skadar) under accusation that he had been organising a Holy War against Islam. There are some unreliable claims that Đurađ was given Anatolia to rule but in any case the reports about Đurađ's life ceased after 1503.
[edit] The End of the Principality
After the death of Đurađ Crnojević, Zeta/Montenegro was ruled by his brother Stefan II, who was a Turkish vassal. The end of the 15th century and of Stefan's rule marked the end of the Crnojević dynasty. In the new administrative division of the Balkans, Zeta/Montenegro was a part of the Sanjak of İşkodra (Shkodër) from 1499 to 1514. During this period, while Brda and North-West of Montenegro were nominally independent, the part of Zeta/Montenegro under Mount Lovćen remained entirely independent. By the end of the 15th century, Upper Zeta/Montenegro comprised Katunska, Riječka, Crmnička, and Lješanska nahijas, and the name of Montenegro was widely in use.
In 1514, Zeta/Montenegro was proclaimed as the separate Sanjak of Montenegro, by the order of Sultan Beyazid II. Ivan Crnojević's son Staniša (Skenderbeg), who converted to Islam was chosen ad the first Sanjak-beg and governed until 1528. Despite Skenderbeg's emphasized cruelty, Ottomans did not have real power in Zeta/Montenegro. The real power was in the hands of tribal heads. From 1534 onwards, there is no more mention of the Crnojevićs in Zeta/Montenegro.
The Principality of Zeta officially ended when it was turned into a theocratic state by the Vladikas (Prince-Bishops or Prince-Episcotes) when they took over in 1516. Zeta became known as Montenegro. The Ottomans controlled a part of Zeta since 1498, that was known as the Sanjak of Montenegro, the Venice controlled Kotor and the theocracy controlled the rest of Montenegro (Upper Zeta).
In the year 1516, there was a shift in the constitution of Zeta/Montenegro that many historians regard as having ensured its survival as an independent state. The last person of the Crnojević dynasty retired to Venice and he had married a Venetian. This conferred the succession upon the bishops of Cetinje. In Zeta/Montenegro, the position of vladika, as the prince-bishop was known, brought stability to that country's leadership. The link between church and state elevated it in the eyes of the peasantry, gave it an institutionalised form of succession that prevented its becoming a matter of contest between minor chieftains, and excluded the possibility of compromising alliances with the Ottomans.
[edit] List of rulers
[edit] House of Nemanjić
- Grand Župan Stefan Nemanja of Rascia and Duklja/Zeta 1186 - 1196
- King Vukan II Nemanjić of Duklja/Zeta and Dalmatia 1196 - 1208
- King Đorđe Nemanjić (1208-1243)
- King Stefan Uroš I (1243-1276)
- Queen Helene d'Anjou (Widow of King Stefan Uroš I of Rascia/Serbia and Duklja/Zeta) 1276 - 1309
- King Stefan Milutin (Uroš II) Nemanjić of Rascia/Serbia and Zeta (1309 - 1321;
- King Stefan (Uroš III) Nemanjić (Stefan Dečanski) of Rascia/Serbia and Duklja/Zeta (1309 - 1321)
- King Stefan (Uroš III) Nemanjić (Stefan Dečanski) of Rascia/Serbia and Duklja/Zeta (1321 - 1331)
- King Stefan Dušan (Uroš IV) Nemanjić of Rascia/Serbia and Duklja/Zeta (1321 - 1331)
- King/Tsar Stefan Dušan (Uroš IV) Nemanjić of Rascia/Serbia and Duklja/Zeta 1331 - 1355
[edit] House of Balšić (Balšić Dynasty)
- Balša I (1356-1362)
- Đurađ I (1362-1378)
- Balša II (1378-1385)
- Đurađ II (1385-1403)
- Balša III (1403-1421)
[edit] Rule under Serbian despots
- Serbian Despot Stefan Lazarević (1421-1427)
- Serbian Despot Đurađ Branković (1427-1435)
[edit] House of Crnojević (Crnojević Dynasty)
- Stefan I Crnojević (1451-1465)
- Ivan Crnojević (1465-1490)
- Đurađ Crnojević (1490-1496)
- Stefan II Crnojević (1496-1498)
[edit] References
- J. Jovanović, Stvaranje Crnogorske Države i Razvoj Crnogorske Nacionalnosti, 1947, Cetinje pages 18, 28, 36, 43, and 54-55
- D. Živković, Istorija Crnogorskog Naroda, 1989, Cetinje
