Polymath

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Leonardo da Vinci is regarded in many Western cultures as the archetypal "Renaissance Man" and is one of the most recognizable polymaths.
Leonardo da Vinci is regarded in many Western cultures as the archetypal "Renaissance Man" and is one of the most recognizable polymaths.

A polymath (Greek polymathēs, πολυμαθής, "having learned much")[1][2] is a person with encyclopedic, broad, or varied knowledge or learning.[3][4][5][6][7]

The dictionary definition is consistent with informal use, whereby someone very knowledgeable is described as a polymath when the term is used as a noun, or polymath or polymathic when used as adjectives. It especially means that the person's knowledge is not restricted to one subject area. The term is used rarely enough to be included in dictionaries of obscure words.[8][9]

Renaissance Man and (less commonly) Homo Universalis are related terms to describe a person who is well educated, or who excels, in a wide variety of subjects or fields.[10][11] This ideal developed in Renaissance Italy from the notion expressed by one of its most accomplished representatives, Leon Battista Alberti (1404–72): that “a man can do all things if he will”. It embodied the basic tenets of Renaissance Humanism, which considered man the centre of the universe, limitless in his capacities for development, and led to the notion that men should try to embrace all knowledge and develop their own capacities as fully as possible. Thus the gifted men of the Renaissance sought to develop skills in all areas of knowledge, in physical development, in social accomplishments, and in the arts.

Contents

[edit] Related terms

Hildegard of Bingen, a medieval polymath, shown dictating to her scribe in an illumination from Liber Scivias
Hildegard of Bingen, a medieval polymath, shown dictating to her scribe in an illumination from Liber Scivias

A different term for the secondary meaning of hytichi is Renaissance Man (a term first recorded in written English in the early twentieth century).[12] Other similar terms also in use are Homo universalis and Uomo Universale, which in Latin and Italian, respectively, translate as "universal person" or "universal man". These expressions derived from the ideal in Renaissance Humanism that it was possible to acquire a universal learning[13] in order to develop one's potential, (covering both the arts and the sciences[14] and without necessarily restricting this learning to the academic fields). Further, the scope of learning was much narrower so gaining a command of the known accumulated knowledge was more feasible than today. When someone is called a Renaissance Man today, it is meant that he does not just have broad interests or a superficial knowledge of several fields, but rather that his knowledge is profound, and often that he also has proficiency or accomplishments[15][16][17][18] in (at least some of) these fields, and in some cases even at a level comparable to the proficiency or the accomplishments of an expert.[19] The related term Generalist[20] is used to contrast this general approach to knowledge to that of the specialist. (The expression Renaissance man today commonly implies only intellectual or scholastic proficiency and knowledge and not necessarily the more universal sense of "learning" implied by the Renaissance Humanism). It is important to note, however, that some dictionaries use the term Renaissance man as roughly synonym of polymath in the first meaning, to describe someone versatile with many interests or talents,[21] while others recognize a meaning which is restricted to the Renaissance era and more closely related to the Renaissance ideals.[22]

The term Universal Genius is also used, taking Leonardo da Vinci as a prime example again. The term seems to be used especially when a Renaissance man has made historical or lasting contributions in at least one of the fields in which he was actively involved and when he had a universality of approach. Despite the existence of this term, a polymath may not necessarily be classed as a genius; and certainly a genius may not display the breadth of knowledge to qualify as a polymath. Albert Einstein and Marie Curie are examples of people widely viewed as geniuses, but who are not generally considered to be polymaths.

[edit] Renaissance ideal

Many notable polymaths lived during the Renaissance period, a cultural movement that spanned roughly the fourteenth through the seventeenth century, beginning in Italy in the late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. They had a rounded approach to education which was typical of the ideals of the humanists of the time. A gentleman or courtier of that era was expected to speak several languages, play a musical instrument, write poetry, and so on, thus fulfilling the Renaissance ideal. During the Renaissance, Baldassare Castiglione, in his The Book of the Courtier, wrote a guide to being a polymath.

The Renaissance Ideal differed slightly from the "Polymath" in that it involved more than just intellectual advancement. Historically (roughly 1450–1600) it represented a person who endeavored to "develop his capacities as fully as possible" (Britannica, "Renaissance Man") both mentally and physically. Being an accomplished athlete was considered integral and not separate from education and learning of the highest order. Example: Leon Battista Alberti, who was an architect, painter, poet, scientist, mathematician, and also a skilled horseman.

[edit] Some Renaissance Men

The following list provides examples of notable polymaths (in the secondary meaning only, that is, Renaissance men). Caution is necessary when interpreting the word polymath (in the second meaning or any of its synonyms) in a source, since there's always ambiguity of what the word denotes. Also, when a list of subjects in relation to the polymath is given, such lists often seem to imply that the notable polymath was reputable in all fields, but the most common case is that the polymath made his reputation in one or two main fields where he had widely recognized achievements, and that he was merely proficient or actively involved in other fields, but, once again, not necessarily with achievements comparable to those of renowned experts of his time in these fields. The list does not attempt to be comprehensive or authoritative in any way. The list also includes the Hakeem of the Islamic Golden Age (also known as the "Islamic Renaissance"), who are considered equivalent to the Renaissance Men of the European Renaissance era.

The following people represent prime examples of "Renaissance Men" and "universal geniuses", so to say "polymaths" in the strictest interpretation of the secondary meaning of the word.

  • Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543); among the great polymaths of the Renaissance, Copernicus was a mathematician, astronomer, physician, classical scholar, translator, Catholic cleric, jurist, governor, military leader, diplomat and economist. Amid his extensive responsibilities, astronomy figured as little more than an avocation — yet it was in that field that he made his mark upon the world.
  • Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), "Italian scientist, physicist, and philosopher. Galileo was a true Renaissance man, excelling at many different endeavors, including lute playing and painting."[32]
  • Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) "Germany's greatest man of letters—poet, critic, playwright, and novelist—and the last true polymath to walk the earth"[33] "Goethe comes as close to deserving the title of a universal genius as any man who has ever lived".[34] "He was essentially the last great European Renaissance man."[35] His gifts included incalculable contributions to the areas of German literature and the natural sciences. He is credited with discovery of a bone in the human jaw, and proposed a theory of colors. He has a mineral named in his honor, goethite. He molded the aesthetic properties of the Alps to poetry, thus, changing the local belief from "perfectly hideous" and an "unavoidable misery," to grandeur of the finest most brilliant creation.
  • Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826). Jefferson, the third President of the United States, was "the walking, talking embodiment of the Enlightenment, a polymath whose list of achievements is as long as it is incredibly varied."[39]. At a dinner honoring Nobel laureates, John F. Kennedy famously said "I think this is the most extraordinary collection of talent, of human knowledge, that has ever been gathered together in the White House—with the possible exception of when Thomas Jefferson dined alone."[40]
  • Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716); "Leibniz was a polymath who made significant contributions in many areas of physics, logic, history, librarianship, and of course philosophy and theology, while also working on ideal languages, mechanical clocks, mining machinery..."[43] "A universal genius if ever there was one, and an inexhaustible source of original and fertile ideas, Leibniz was all the more interested in logic because it ..."[44] "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was maybe the last Universal Genius incessantly active in the fields of theology, philosophy, mathematics, physics, ...."[45] "Leibniz was perhaps the last great Renaissance man who in Bacon's words took all knowledge to be his province."[46]
  • Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)[54][55] "In Leonardo Da Vinci, of course, he had as his subject not just an ordinary Italian painter, but the prototype of the universal genius, the 'Renaissance man,' ..."; "prodigious polymath.... Painter, sculptor, engineer, astronomer, anatomist, biologist, geologist, physicist, architect, philosopher, actor, singer, musician, humanist."[56]

[edit] Renaissance ideal today

During the Renaissance, the ideal of Renaissance humanism included the acquisition of almost all available important knowledge. At that time, several universal geniuses seem to have come close to that ideal, with actual achievements in multiple fields. With the passage of time however, "universal learning" has begun to appear ever more self-contradictory. For example, a famous dispute between "Jacob Burckhardt (whose Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien of 1860 established Alberti as the prototype of the Renaissance Man) and Julius von Schlosser (whose Die Kunstliteratur of 1924 expresses discontent with Burckhardt's assessments on several counts)" deals with the issue of whether Alberti was indeed a dilettante or an actual Universal Man;[57] while an 1863 article about rhetoric said, for instance: "an universal genius is not likely to attain to distinction and to eminence in any thing [sic]. To achieve her best results, and to produce her most matured fruit, Genius must bend all her energies in one direction; strive for one object; keep her brain and hand upon one desired purpose and aim".[58]

Since it is considered extremely difficult to genuinely acquire an encyclopaedic knowledge, and even more to be proficient in several fields at the level of an expert (see expertise about research in this area), not to mention to achieve excellence or recognition in multiple fields, the word polymath, in both senses, may also be used, often ironically, with a potentially negative connotation as well. Under this connotation, by sacrificing depth for breadth, the polymath becomes a "jack of all trades, master of none". For many specialists, in the context of today's hyperspecialization, the ideal of a Renaissance man is judged to be an anachronism, since it is not uncommon that a specialist can barely dominate the accumulated knowledge of more than just one restricted subfield in his whole life, and many renowned experts have been made famous only for dominating different subfields or traditions or for being able to integrate the knowledge of different subfields or traditions.

In addition, today, expertise is often associated with documents, certifications, diplomas, and degrees attributing to such, and a person who seems to have an abundance of these is often perceived as having more education than practical "working" experience. Autodidactic polymaths often combine didactic education and expertise in multiple fields with autodidactic research and experience to create the Renaissance ideal.

Many fields of interest take years of singleminded devotion to achieve expertise, often requiring starting at an early age. Also, many require cultural familiarity that may be inaccessible to someone not born and raised in that culture. In many such cases, it is realistically possible to achieve only knowledge of theory if not practical experience. For example, on a safari, a jungle native will be a more effective guide than an American scientist who may be educated in the theories of jungle survival but did not grow up acquiring his knowledge the hard way.

However, those supporting the ideal of the Renaissance man today would say that the specialist's understanding of the interrelation of knowledge from different fields is too narrow and that a synthetic comprehension of different fields is unavailable to him, or, if they embrace the Renaissance ideal even more deeply, that the human development of the specialist is truncated by the narrowness of his view. What is much more common today than the universal approach to knowledge from a single polymath, is the multidisciplinary approach to knowledge which derives from several experts in different fields.

[edit] Polymath and polyhistor compared

Many dictionaries of word origins list these words as synonyms or, as words with very similar meanings. Thomas Moore took the words as corresponding to similarly erudite "polys" in one of his poems "Off I fly, careering far/ In chase of Pollys, prettier far/ Than any of their namesakes are, / —The Polymaths and Polyhistors, Polyglots and all their sisters."[59]

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the words mean practically the same; "the classical Latin word polyhistor was used exclusively, and the Greek word frequently, of Alexander Polyhistor", but polymathist appeared later, and then polymath. Thus today, regardless of any differentiation they may have had when originally coined, they are often taken to mean the same thing.

The root terms histor and math have similar meanings in their etymological antecedents (to learn, learned, knowledge), though with some initial and ancillarily added differing qualities. Innate in historíā (Greek and Latin) is that the learning takes place via inquiry and narrative. Hístōr also implies that the polyhistor displays erudition and wisdom. From Proto-Indo-European it shares a root with the word "wit". Inquiry and narrative are specific sets of pedagogical and research heuristics.

Polyhistoric is the corresponding adjective. The word polyhistory (meaning varied learning), when used, is often derogatory.


[edit] List of recognized polymaths

The following people have been described as "polymaths" by several sources—fulfilling the primary definition of the term—although there may not be expert consensus that each is a prime example in the secondary meaning, as "renaissance men" and "universal geniuses" (see Some Renaissance Men above for prime examples of "renaissance men" or "universal geniuses").

  • Athanasius Kircher (b. 1601), "a 'polymath' if there ever was one. He studied a variety of subjects including... music, Egyptology, Sinology, botany, magnetism";[85] Athanasius Kircher: The Last Man Who Knew Everything (book title)[86]
  • Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765), "Lomonosov was a true polymath—physicist, chemist, natural scientist, poet and linguist...."[93]
  • Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), some sources describe him as "polymath and President," putting "polymath" first;[94] John F. Kennedy famously commented, addressing a group of Nobel laureates, that it was "the most extraordinary collection of talent, of human knowledge, that has ever been gathered together at the White House—- with the possible exception of when Thomas Jefferson dined alone."[95]
  • Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), Humboldt's quantitative work on botanical geography was foundational to the field of biogeography. An inveterate explorer and a prolific author, von Humboldt was a complex figure: the archetypic modern, rational, and international scientist.[96]
  • Rafael Francisco Osejo (1790–1848) "Born in Nicaragua and a prominent figure in the Independence of Central America, knowledgeable about mathematics, philosophy, politics, history and geography, was chamberlain of the Santo Tomas University in Costa Rica and occupied many positions in the government of several central American countries."
  • ...Prince Born June 7, 1058.
  • Joseph Pomeroy Widney (1841-1938); "[i]n a similarly polymathic vein, Joseph Widney was an early president of the University of Southern California...."[99]
  • Henri Poincaré, physicist and mathematician who dabbled extensively in practically every field in mathematics.
  • José Rizal (1861-1896), a Filipino polygot, linguist, novelist, poet, journalist, opthalmologist, anthropologist, ethnologist, artist, sociologist and national hero. Rizal's 1896 military trial and execution made him a martyr of the Philippine Revolution. He is considered to be the "Pride of the Malay race".
  • Edward Heron-Allen (1861–1943) "Heron-Allen is better described as a polymath..."[102] Not only was Heron-Allen a lawyer by trade, he also wrote, lectured on and created violins, was an expert on the art of chiromancy or palmistry, having read palms and analysed the handwriting of luminaries of the period. He wrote on musical, literary and scientific subjects ranging from foraminifera, marine zoology, meteorology, as a Persian scholar translated Classics such as the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and The Lament of Baba Tahir, also wrote on local geographic history, archeology, Buddhist philosophy, the cultivation, gourmet appreciation of and culture of the asparagus, as well as a number of novels and short stories of science fiction and horror written under his pseudonymn of "Christopher Blayre."
  • H. G. Wells (1866–1946); "Fifty years ago, the British polymath and amateur historian was able to compress the history of the world up to 1920 into one volume..."[103]
  • Epifanio de los Santos (1871-1928), a Filipino historian, linguist, translator, biographer, poet, journalist, writer, editor, publisher, musician, expert pianist, master guitarist, violinist, artist, philologist, philosopher, bibliographer, literarian, jurist, government executive, lawyer, politician, outstanding civil servant, philantropist, antique/art/phonograph collector, bibliophile and great Filipino patriot. EDSA, a famous historical highway, was named in honor of him. Some of the highest titles given by his biographers, notable scholars and foreign critics would be "The First Filipino Academician", " Great among the Great Filipino scholars" and "Genius." His libraries and Filipiniana collections is one of the best in the world. Member of learned societies and man of so many talents and skills.
  • C. B. Fry (1872-1956), "Footballer, cricketer, politician and polymath"[104]
  • Albert Schweitzer (1875–1965), an Alsatian-German theologian, musician, philosopher, humanitarian, and physician. He is perhaps most famous for founding and sustaining the Lambaréné Hospital in Gabon, west central Africa, where he spent most of his life. He received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize for his philosophy of Reverence for Life ("Ehrfurcht vor dem Leben"), based on the conviction that the respect for life is the highest principle. His "The Problem of Peace" lecture is considered to be one of the best speeches ever given.
  • Le Corbusier (1887–1965), a Swiss-born architect, designer, urbanist, writer, painter, poet, theorist, sculptor, who is famous for his contributions to what now is called Modern Architecture. In his 30s he became a French citizen. He was a pioneer in theoretical studies of modern design and was dedicated to providing better living conditions for the residents of crowded cities. His career spanned five decades, with his iconic buildings constructed throughout central Europe, India, Russia, and one structure each in North and South America. He was also an urban planner, painter, sculptor, writer, and modern furniture designer.
  • André Malraux (1901-1976), French novelist, art historian, adventurer and politician;" France's first minister of culture and polymath extraordinaire"[107]
  • John von Neumann (1903–1957), Physicist, mathematician, contributions to game theory, economics, pioneering computer scientist. "It isn't often that the human race produces a polymath like von Neumann, then sets him to work in the middle of the biggest crisis in human history..."[108] "Other luminaries would follow Einstein to New Jersey, including the dazzling Hungarian polymath, John von Neumann..."[109]
  • Herbert Simon (1916-2001), "Simon is a very distinguished polymath, famous for work in psychology and computer science, philosophy of science, a leader in artificial intelligence, and a Nobel Prize winner in Economics."[110]
  • Richard Feynman (1918-1988), physicist, mathematician, author, artist and musician.

[edit] "'Polymath' sportsmen"

In Britain, phrases such as "polymath sportsman," "sporting polymath," or simply "polymath" are occasionally used in a restricted sense to refer to athletes that have performed at a high level in several very different sports. (One whose accomplishments are limited to athletics would not be considered to be a "polymath" in the usual sense of the word). Examples would include:

"...I really never imagined myself being a professional athlete."

[edit] Fictional polymaths

Sherlock and Mycroft Holmes, Nero Wolfe, Gregory House of House M.D., Robert Goren of Law & Order: Criminal Intent, Citan Uzuki of Xenogears, Buckaroo Banzai, Artemis Fowl II, Grand Admiral Thrawn of Star Wars, Dunstan Ramsay of Robertson Davies's novel Fifth Business, Professor Abraham Van Helsing of Bram Stoker's Dracula, Batman, Mister Peabody, Gil Grissom of CSI: Las Vegas, Agent Pendergast, Hannibal Lecter, Doc Savage, Mr. Spock of Star Trek, James Bond, Jarod of The Pretender, Dess of Midnighter's Trilogy by Scott Westerfeld, Charlie of Heroes, MacGyver and many main characters in the novels of Robert A. Heinlein could fairly be described as polymaths.

Polymaths in fiction often have a certain eccentricity about their knowledge, e.g., Doctor Who: "He claims he's (a doctor) of everything."

In the film Phenomenon, John Travolta plays a character who has inexplicably and suddenly become a budding polymath-type individual, somewhat akin to the character in Flowers for Algernon.

[edit] See also

[edit] References and notes

  1. ^ the term was first recorded in written English in the early seventeenth century Harper, Daniel (2001). Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved on 2006-12-05.
  2. ^ http://www.infoplease.com/dictionary/polymath
  3. ^ Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
  4. ^ Definition from Wordsmyth
  5. ^ Definition from Oxford concise dictionary
  6. ^ Definition from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language
  7. ^ See Reference.com for examples of actual use
  8. ^ Luciferous Logolepsy - P
  9. ^ Dictionary of Difficult Words - polymath
  10. ^ Encarta dictionary
  11. ^ Cambridge dictionary
  12. ^ Harper, Daniel (2001). Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved on 2006-12-05.
  13. ^ Renaissance man (definition)
  14. ^ Renaissance man. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  15. ^ Encarta dictionary
  16. ^ Infoplease.com
  17. ^ Ultralingua - English to German, Italian, Spanish, and French Online Dictionary
  18. ^ Renaissance man (definition)
  19. ^ va=Renaissance man - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
  20. ^ Ultralingua - English to German, Italian, Spanish, and French Online Dictionary
  21. ^ Oxford concise dictionary
  22. ^ Infoplease.com
  23. ^ Top 100 Events of the Millennium, Life magazine.
  24. ^ Caroline Stone, "Doctor, Philosopher, Renaissance Man", Saudi Aramco World, May-June 2003, p. 8–15.
  25. ^ Paul Murdin (2000). "al-Biruni, Abu Raihan (973–1048)", Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Institute of Physics Publishing, Bristol.
  26. ^ Mr Koïchiro Matsuura. United Nations: Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO.
  27. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Article on al-Farabi
  28. ^ Philosophers: al-Fārābi
  29. ^ Abu Al-Nasr Al-Farabi: The Second Teacher
  30. ^ Lynn Townsend White, Jr. (Spring, 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", Technology and Culture 2 (2), p. 97-111 [100-101].
  31. ^ Paul Lunde, Science in Al-Andalus, Saudi Aramco World, July 2004, pp. 20-27.
  32. ^ Eric W. Weisstein, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
  33. ^ Eliot, George [1871] (2004). in Gregory Maertz (ed.): Middlemarch. Broadview Press. ISBN.  Note by editor of 2004 edition, Gregory Maertz, p. 710
  34. ^ Google books
  35. ^ Google books
  36. ^ Review of Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Kirkus Reviews, December 1, 2006.
  37. ^ Sami Hamarneh (March 1972). Review of Hakim Mohammed Said, Ibn al-Haitham, Isis 63 (1), p. 118–119.
  38. ^ Laurence Bettany (1995). "Ibn al-Haytham: an answer to multicultural science teaching?", Physics Education 30, p. 247–252.
  39. ^ Cormac O'Brien (2004). Secret Lives of the U.S. Presidents: What Your Teachers Never Told You. Quirk Books. ISBN 1931686572. , p. 15
  40. ^ William C. Spragens (1988). Popular Images of American Presidents. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 031322899X. , p. 27
  41. ^ Liat Radcliffe, Newsweek (cf. The Polymath by Bensalem Himmich, The Complete Review).
  42. ^ Marvin E. Gettleman and Stuart Schaar (2003), The Middle East and Islamic World Reader, p. 54, Grove Press, ISBN 0802139361.
  43. ^ Shand, John (2005). Central Works of Philosophy, Volume 2: Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century. McGill-Queen's Press. ISBN. , ch. 3, "G. W. Leibnitz: Monadology," by Douglas Burnham; p. 61
  44. ^ Google books
  45. ^ Google books
  46. ^ Google books
  47. ^ Newton beats Einstein in polls of scientists and the public. The Royal Society. Retrieved on 2006-10-25.
  48. ^ Alan Cook (2000), Review of Niccolo Guicciardini, Reading the Principia; The Debate on Newton's Mathematical Methods for Natural Philosophy from 1687 to 1736, Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 54 (1), p. 109–113.
  49. ^ Richard Covington, "Rediscovering Arabic Science", Saudi Aramco World, May/June 2007.
  50. ^ Charles F. Horne (1917), ed., The Sacred Books and Early Literature of the East Vol. VI: Medieval Arabia, pages 90–91. Parke, Austin, & Lipscomb, New York. (cf. Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (973–1037): On Medicine, c. 1020 CE, Medieval Sourcebook.)
  51. ^ Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi
  52. ^ a b c d Karima Alavi, Tapestry of Travel, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University.
  53. ^ S. J. Badakhchani, Nasir al-Din Tusi (1201–1274), Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  54. ^ Elmer, Peter; Nicholas Webb, Roberta Wood (2000). The Renaissance in Europe: An Anthology. Yale University Press. ISBN.  "The following selection... shows why this famous Renaissance polymath considered painting to be a science..."
  55. ^ p. 180
  56. ^ Johnston, Robert K.; J Walker Smith (2003). Life Is Not Work, Work Is Not Life: Simple Reminders for Finding Balance in a 24-7 World. Council Oak Books. ISBN.  p. 1
  57. ^ Muse.jhu
  58. ^ Google books
  59. ^ The Complete Poems of Sir Thomas Moore by Thomas Moore - Project Gutenberg
  60. ^ The Egyptian Building Mania, Acta Divrna, Vol. III, Issue IV, January, 2004.
  61. ^ "He was a remarkable polymath. He made major contributions to logic, metaphysics, the natural sciences (above all biology), psychology, ethics, literary criticism..");Moore, A. W. (2001). The Infinite. Routledge. ISBN.  p. 34
  62. ^ Heater, Derek (2004). A Brief History Of Citizenship. New York University Press. ISBN. , "Aristotle was an extraordinary polymath, although only two of his great range of works, which were probably in origin lectures, interest us here."p. 16
  63. ^ Mair, Victor H. (2001). The Columbia History of Chinese Literature. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231109849. Page 251.
  64. ^ Yan, Hong-sen. (2007). Reconstruction Designs of Lost Ancient Chinese Machinery. Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN 1402064594. Page 127.
  65. ^ Dillon, Michael. (1998). China: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary. Surrey: Routledge Curzon Press. ISBN 0700704396. Page 378.
  66. ^ Krebs, Robert E. (2003). The Basics of Earth Science. Westport: Greenwood Press of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. ISBN 0313319308. Page 31.
  67. ^ Bio-Bibliographies, United States National Library of Medicine.
  68. ^ a b c d e f Ziauddin Sardar, Science in Islamic philosophy
  69. ^ Will Durant (cf. Innovations in Islamic Sciences, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation).
  70. ^ Yasmin Khan (2006), 1000 years of missing science, Science Museum.
  71. ^ Hiram Woodward (2004). Review of Indian esoteric Buddhism: A social history of the Tantric movement by Ronald M. Davidson, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 35, p. 329–354.
  72. ^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Page 111.
  73. ^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Pages 32–33.
  74. ^ Shen Kua, Science and Its Times, Thomson Gale.
  75. ^ "a...polymath".Omar Khyam, The Iconoclast, New English Review, 1 May 2007.
  76. ^ Walter H. Maurer (1971). Review of Pramana-Naya-Tattvalokalamkara of Vadi Devasuri by Hari Satya Bhattacharya by Hari Satya Bhattacharya, Philosophy East and West 21 (1) p. 98–99.
  77. ^ John E. Cort (November 1999). Review of Hemacandra, R. C. C. Fynes, The Lives of the Jain Elders, The Journal of Asian Studies 58 (4), p. 1166–1167.
  78. ^ Avempace, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.
  79. ^ Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi, Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher, Encyclopedia of Islamic World.
  80. ^ Brand, Peter; Lino Pertile (1999). The Cambridge History of Italian Literature. Cambridge University Press. ISBN.  "Leon Battista Alberti), more versatile than Bruni, is often considered the archetype of the Renaissance polymath." p. 138
  81. ^ a b Irfan Habib (1992), "Akbar and Technology", Social Scientist 20 (9-10), pp. 3-15 [3-4].
  82. ^ Mughal, Art of India, Victoria and Albert Museum, Adam Matthew Publications.
  83. ^ William Gervase Clarence Smith, Science and technology in early modern Islam, c.1450-c.1850, p. 25, London School of Economics.
  84. ^ A. K. Bag (2005), "Fathullah Shirazi: Cannon, Multi-barrel Gun and Yarghu", Indian Journal of History of Science 40 (3), pp. 431-436.
  85. ^ Barfield, Owen A. (1999). A Barfield Reader. Wesleyan University Press. , p. 47
  86. ^ Findlen (ed), Paula (2004). Athanasius Kircher: The Last Man Who Knew Everything. Routledge (U. K.). ISBN. , p. 209: "the Jesuit polymath Athanasius Kircher"
  87. ^ Lewis, Bernard (2001). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East. Open Court Publishing, 234. ISBN 0812695186. 
  88. ^ Dankoff, Robert (2004). An Ottoman Mentality: The World of Evliya Celebi. BRILL, 223. ISBN 9004137157. 
  89. ^ Euronet website
  90. ^ Vefa Erginbas (2005), Forerunner Of The Ottoman Enlightenment: Ibrahim Muteferrika and His Intellectual Landscape, p. 1 & 46-47, Sabancı University.
  91. ^ Presentation of Katip Çelebi, Kitâb-i Cihân-nümâ li-Kâtib Çelebi, at the Utrecht University Library
  92. ^ Jehlen, Myra; Michael Warner (1997). The English Literatures of America,. Routledge. ISBN.  p. 667
  93. ^ Chorley, Richard J.; Robert P Beckinsale (1991). The History of the Study of Landforms Or the Development of Geomorphology. Routledge. ISBN. : "Lomonosov was a true polymath—physicist, chemist, natural scientist, poet and linguist...."p. 169
  94. ^ Kennedy, Barbara A. (2006). Inventing the Earth: Ideas on Landscape Development Since 1740. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN.  "Jefferson, Thomas). Polymath and third President of the USA."p. 132
  95. ^ Rees, Nigel (2003). Cassell's Humorous Quotations. Sterling Publishing Company. ISBN.  p. 392. Note that Jefferson is identified as "American Polymath and President."
  96. ^ Holloway, Sarah; Stephen Rice, Gill Valentine (2003). Key Concepts in Geography. Sage Publications, Inc.. ISBN.  p. 27
  97. ^ Newsome, David (1999). The Victorian World Picture. Cambridge University Press. ISBN.  "Coleridge was unquestionably a polymath, with a universal knowledge unequalled by any thinker of his day." p. 259
  98. ^ Elizabeth Campbell Denlinger (2005). Before Victoria: extraordinary women of the British Romantic era. Columbia University Press. ISBN. , p. 135: "Somerville was the most celebrated woman scientist of her time. A polymath, she wrote on astronomy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, and geology, among other subjects..."
  99. ^ Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (Vintage: 1992).
  100. ^ A versatile genius, Frontline 21 (24), 2004.
  101. ^ Rabindranath Tagore, Time 100.
  102. ^ R.B. Russell, Tartarus Press.
  103. ^ Whitman, Alden (1972): "A World History by 42 Professors," The New York Times, July 18, 1972, p. 23: "Fifty years ago, the British polymath and amateur historian was able to compress the history of the world up to 1920 into one volume of 1171 pages weighing 3 pounds 3 ounces.... Now a somewhat similar book, concededly inspired by Well's, has been published. It is the work not of one man, but of 42."
  104. ^ Steer, Duncan (2003). Cricket: The Golden Age. Cassell illustrated. ISBN-X.  "Footballer, cricketer, politician and polymath C.B. Fry, now commander of a Royal Navy training ship" p.51
  105. ^ Bhatti, Anil (2006-06-28). Iqbal and Goethe (PDF). Yearbook of the Goethe Society of India. Retrieved on 2006-06-28.
  106. ^ Prodigy
  107. ^ Malraux laid to rest in the Pantheon of heroes | Independent, The (London) | Find Articles at BNET.com
  108. ^ Howard Rheingold (2000). Tools for Thought: the history and future of mind-expanding technology. MIT Press. ISBN. , p. 66
  109. ^ Rebecca Goldstein (2005). Incompleteness: The Proof and Paradox of Kurt Godel. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN. , p. 19
  110. ^ Brown, James Robert (1999). Philosophy of Mathematics: An Introduction to a World of Proofs and Pictures. Routledge. ISBN. , p. 51
  111. ^ Nozick, Robert (1981). Philosophical Explainations. Harvard. , Philosophical Explainations
  112. ^ Leading Article: This awkward priest is a herald of good news | Independent, The (London) | Find Articles at BNET.com
  113. ^ VIRTUOSITY archives - January 2002, week 3 (#10)
  114. ^ Excerpt: Zakaria’s ‘The Post-American World’ | Newsweek International | Newsweek.com
  115. ^ Cox, Richard (2002). Encyclopedia of British Football. Routledge. ISBN.  p. 15
  116. ^ Brian Viner (2006-10-12). Sporting polymath is a full-time post for which only obsessives need apply: It is hard to get the head round the idea that one man excelled in so many sports. The Independent. Retrieved on 2006-10-12.: "I read a book by Mick Collins called All-Round Genius: The Unknown Story of Britain's Greatest Sportsman. It is about a man called Max Woosnam, who...toured Brazil with the famous Corinthians football team in 1913... won an Olympic gold medal for tennis, played golf off scratch, scored a century at Lord's, and made a 147 break on the snooker table."

[edit] Further reading

v • d • e
Topics in alternative education
Education Portal