Polish minority in Lithuania

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

% of Poles by municipalities
% of Poles by municipalities
Number of Poles by municipalities
Number of Poles by municipalities

The Polish minority in Lithuania (Lithuanian: Lenkai; Polish: Polacy) numbers 234,989 persons and, at 6.74% of the population of Lithuania, forms the largest ethnic minority in modern Lithuania. Poles are concentrated in the Vilnius region (Polish: Wilno). People of Polish ethnicity have lived on the territory of modern Lithuania for many centuries.

The relationship between the two groups is long and complex. The countries were united during the era of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which ended after the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century. The alliance was at times uneasy. Both countries succeeded in gaining independence in the wake of World War I, but hostilities over the ownership of the Vilnius Region broke out in 1920. The disputes were addressed when the Soviet Union exercised its authority over both countries during and immediately after World War II. Serious tensions resurfaced after Lithuania regained its independence in 1990[1][2], but have since remained at manageable levels.

Contents

[edit] Statistics

The Polish minority in Lithuania numbers 234,989 persons.[3] The Polish minority (or Polonia), forming 6.74% of the population of Lithuania, is the largest ethnic minority in modern Lithuania; the second largest being Russian minority in Lithuania.[3] 187,918 people in Lithuania consider the Polish language to be their mother tongue.[4] Poles are concentrated in the Vilnius region. The vast majority of Poles live in Vilnius county (216,012 people, forming 26% of the county's population); Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania, has 101,526 Poles, who form 19.3% of the city's population.[5] Especially large Polish communities are found in Vilnius district municipality (61.3% of the population) and Šalčininkai (Soleczniki) district municipality (79.5%).[5]

Population with Polish ethnic affiliations [6][7][dead link]
within current Lithuanian borders
Census year 1897 1923 est. 1959 1970 1979 1989 2001 2007 est.
Population 260 000 415 000 230 000 240 200 247 000 258 000 235 000 212 100
Percentage 9.7% 15.3% 8.5% 7.7% 7.3% 7.0% 6.7% 6.3%
Percentage of Poles in Lithuania stating Polish as their mother tongue [8]
(censuses data)
Census year 1959 1970 1979 1989 2001
Percentage 96.8% 92.4% 88.3% 85.0% 80.0%

[edit] Education

Absolute numbers with Polish language education at Lithuanian rural schools (1980)[9]
District municipality Lithuanian Russian Polish
Vilnius / Wilno 1250 4150 6400
Šalčininkai / Soleczniki 500 2050 3200
Švenčionys / Święciany 1350 600 100
Trakai / Troki 2900 50 950
Varėna / Orany 6000 0 50
Širvintos / Szyrwinty 2400 100 100
Absolute number with Polish language education at Lithuanian urban schools was 5 600

As of 1980, about 20% of Polish-Lithuanian students chose Polish at school.[9] In the same year, about 60-70% of rural Polish community chose Polish. However, even in towns with predominantly Polish population the share of Polish language education was less then the percentage of Poles. Even though, historically Poles tended to strongly oppose Russification, one of the most important reasons to choose Russian language education was the absence of Polish language college and university learning in the USSR, and during Soviet times Polish students were not allowed to get college/university education directly in Poland. Only in 2007, the first small branch of the Polish Białystok University opened in Vilnius. In 1980 there were 16,400 school students instructed in Polish. Their number declined to 11,400 in 1990. In independent Lithuania between 1990 and 2001 the number of Polish mother tongue children attending schools with Polish as the language of instruction doubled to over 22,300, then gradually decreased to 18,392 in 2005 [10].

[edit] History

People of Polish ethnicity have lived in Lithuania for many centuries. Most researchers agree, that many Poles in Lithuania are the descendants of Polonized locals.[11][dubious – discuss][12] Historically, the number of Poles on modern Lithuanian territory has varied during different periods[citation needed]. Polish culture began to influence the Grand Duchy of Lithuania around the time of the Union of Lublin (16th century), and during the time of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569-1795) much of the Lithuanian nobility was polonized and joined the Polish-Lithuanian szlachta class. Reformation gave another impetus to the spread of the Polish language, as the Bible and other religious texts were translated from Latin to Polish. In 1697 Polish replaced Ruthenian as an chancellery language. In 19th century peasants of Polish nationality started to appear in Lithuania, mostly by Polonization of Lithuanian peasants.[13]

A large portion of the Vilnius area was controlled by the Second Polish Republic during the interwar period, particularly the area of the Republic of Central Lithuania, which contained a significant Polish speaking population (for example, the Wilno Voivodeship in 1931 contained 59.7% Polish speakers and only 5.2% Lithuanian speakers[14]). From 1918 to 1921 several conflicts - such as the activity of Polish Military Organization, Sejny uprising (that was met with massive outrage in Lithuania[15]) and discovered attempted of Polish coup on Lithuanian government[16][17]. From the documents stolen in POW headquoters safe in Vilnius and given to Prime Minister of Lithuania Augustinas Voldemaras it is clear, that this plot was directed by Józef Piłsudski himself.[18], the Polish-Lithuanian War and Żeligowski's Mutiny contributed to worsening of Polish-Lithuanian relations; increasingly Polish people were viewed with suspicion in Lithuania. The loss of Vilnius was a stunning blow to Lithuanian aspirations and identity, and the unrelenting irredentist demand for its return became one of the most important elements of Lithuanian political and social life in the interwar period.[19] The irredentist campaign resulted in the emergence of feelings of hatred and revenge directed against the Poles in the Lithuanian society.[19] In fact, the largest social organization in interwar Lithuania was the League for the liberation of Vilnius (Vilniaus Vadavimo Safunga, or WS), which trumpeted the irredentist line in its magazine "Our Vilnius" (Mttsu Vilnius)." [19]

Hence in the interwar period Polish minority was persecuted by the administration of independent Lithuania.[20] The Lithuanian census of 1923 showed that Poles constituted 65,600 of Lithuania inhabitants (3.2% of total population).[21] In interwar Lithuania, people declaring Polish ethicity were officially described as polonized Lithuanians who merely needed to be re-Lithuanianized, Polish-owned land were confistacted, Polish religious services, schools, publications, and voting rights were restricted.[22]

During the WWII expulsions and shortly after the war, the Soviet Union, during its struggle to establish the People's Republic of Poland, forcibly resettled many Poles who lived in the Lithuanian SSR and were seen as 'enemies of the state' into Siberia. After the war, in 1945-1948, the Soviet Union allowed to leave 197,000 of Poles to Poland; in 1956-1959, another 46,600 were able to leave.[23][24] In 1950s the remaining Polish minority was a target of several attempted campaigns of Lithuanization by Communist Party of Lithuania, which tried to ban any teaching in Polish language; those attempts where however vetoed by Moscow which saw them as too nationalistic.[25] The Soviet census of 1959 showed 230,100 Poles concentrated in the Vilnius region (8.5% of the Lithuanian SSR's population).[26] The Polish minority increased in size, but more slowly than other ethnic groups in Lithuania; the last Soviet census of 1989 showed 258,000 Poles (7.0% of the Lithuanian SSR's population).[26] The Polish minority, subject in the past to massive, often voluntary [27] Russification and Sovietization, and recently to mostly voluntary processes of Lithuanization, shows many and increasing signs of assimilation with Lithuanians.[26] However some young Poles don't speak Lithuanian fluently, so they prefer to study in Poland or in Polish language University of Białystok branch in Vilnius, rather than in Lithuanian universities.

Some Poles living in the south of Lithuania speak a dialect of Polish, containing many substratical relics from Lithuanian and Belarusian language.[28]

[edit] Current situation

Grey: Areas with majority Polish population in modern Lithuania. Red: pre-WWII Polish-Lithuanian border
Grey: Areas with majority Polish population in modern Lithuania. Red: pre-WWII Polish-Lithuanian border

The situation of the Polish minority in Lithuania has caused occasional tensions in Polish-Lithuanian relations during the late 20th and early 21st centuries. When Lithuania declared its independence from the Soviet Union in 1990, Gorbachev sought help from the Polish minority[29]. Polish minority, still remembering the 1950s attempts to ban Polish language,[25] was much more supportive of the Soviet Union and afraid that the new Lithuanian government might want to reintroduce the Lithuanization policies;[25] according to surveys conducted in the spring of 1990, 47% of Poles in Lithuania supported the pro-Soviet Communist party (in contrast to 8% support among ethnic Lithuanians), while 35% supported Lithuanian independence.[25] The regional authorities in Vilnius and Šalčininkai region, under Polish leadership, with support from Soviet authorities, argued for the establishment of an autonomous region in South Eastern Lithuania, a request that was declined by the Lithuanian government and left lasting resentment among some residents.[30] The same regional leaders later voiced support for the Soviet coup attempt of 1991 in Moscow.[30] Government of Poland however never supported the separationist tendencies of the Polish minority in Lithuania, and the former Polish ambassador to Lithuania, Jan Widacki, has criticized some Polish organizations in Lithuania as being extreme far-right and nationalist.[31]

This situation is further aggravated by fringe Lithuanian extremist nationalist organization Vilnija. [32] [33] [34] The organization was formed in 1988, and its primary aim was the Lithuanization of ethnic Poles living in the Eastern part of Lithuania. [25] The organization's goal is also to counter perceived growing Polish influence in Lithuania, which Vilnija sees as a threat to that nation.[25] Vilnija has been seen by Polish government and media to often organize or support anti-Polish actions. [35] [36] [37]

The United States Department of State stated, in a report issued in 2001, that the Polish minority had issued complaints with regard to its status in Lithuania, and that members of the Polish Parliament criticized the government of Lithuania over alleged discrimination against the Polish minority. [38] In recent years, the Lithuanian government budgets 40,000 litas (~15,000$) for the needs of the Polish minority (out of the 7 million litas budget of the Department of National Minorities).[39] In 2006 Polish Foreign Minister Stefan Meller asserted that Polish educational institutions in Lithuania are severely underfunded.[40] Similar concerns were voiced in 2007 by a Polish parliamentary commission [41]

A report by the Council of Europe, issued in 2007, stated that on the whole, minorities were integrated quite well into the everyday life of Lithuania. The report expressed a concern with Lithuanian nationality law, which contains a right of return clause, and recommended additional financial support for translations of textbooks.[42] The citizenship law was under discussion during 2007; it was deemed unconstitutional on 13 November 2006.[43] A proposed constitutional amendment would allow the Polish minority in Lithuania to apply for Polish passports.[44].

According to a report issued by the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights in 2004, Poles in Lithuania were the second least-educated minority group in Lithuania.[45] The Lithuanian government is obligated to ensure non-discrimination on the basis of The Declaration on Friendly Relations and Good-neighbourly Co-operation between the Republic of Poland and the Republic of Lithuania (Vilnius, January 13, 1992), which says: Both Parties will seek the possibilities of fully satisfying linguistic, cultural, religious and educational needs of the Polish minority in Lithuania and the Lithuanian minority in Poland, including studying in their mother tongue, educating minority members in their mother tongue on all levels of the school system, as well as to ensuring non-discrimination in political, social and economic life and also enabling persons belonging to minority to retain unrestricted contacts with the other country.[46]. Branch of University of Białystok in Vilnius educates mostly members of the Polish minority. Ministry of Internal Affairs dissolves Vilnius district municipality causing protests.

According to Tygodnik Wileńszczyzny Polish language weekly Lithuanian authorities don't respect EU convention [2]. Jurgis Jurkevičius, the representative of Lithuanian government in the Vilnius district municipality demands removal of Polish names of the streets in Maišiogala (Mejszagoła), Raudondvaris (Czerwony Dwór), Riešė (Rzesza) and Sudervė (Suderwa).[47]

Tensions have been reported between the Lithuanian Roman Catholic clergy and its Polish parishioniers in Lithuania.[48][49][50]

In late May 2008, Association of Poles in Lithuania issued a letter, addressed to the government of Lithuania, complaining about anti-minority (primarily, anti-Polish) rhetoric in media, citing upcoming parliamentary elections as a motive, and asking for better treatment of the ethnic minorities. The Association has also filed a complain with the Lithuanian prosecutor, asking for investigation of the issue.[51][52][53]

The situation of Polish minority causes occasional tensions between Lithuanians and Poles. The Lithuanians criticize the activities of the Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania, whose Polish-Lithuanian officials often administer the Vilnius and Šalčininkai districts. The Poles on the other hand are critical of the Lithuanian government. Both groups criticize the other for discrimination and intolerance.

[edit] Organizations

Lithuanian Polonia has several organizations.

The Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania (Lithuanian: Lietuvos lenkų rinkimų akcija, Polish: Akcja Wyborcza Polaków na Litwie) is an ethnic minority-based political party formed in 1994, able to exert significant political influence in the administrative districts where Poles form a majority or significant minority. This party has held 1-2 seats in the parliament of Lithuania for the past decade; in the last general elections it got about 4% of votes. The party is more active in local politics and controls several municipal councils.[54]

The Association of Poles in Lithuania (Polish: Związek Polaków na Litwie) is an organization formed in 1989 to bring together Polish activists in Lithuania. It numbers between 6,000 to 11,000 members. It defends the civil rights of the Polish minority and engages in educational, cultural and economic activities.[54]

[edit] Prominent Poles

[edit] 1918-1940

[edit] Today

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

[edit] References

  1. ^ Evaldas Nekrasas. Is Lithuania a Northern or Central European Country? (PDF) p.5. Lithuanian Foreign Policy Review. Retrieved on 2008-03-30. “In a letter written to Vytautas Landsbergis in December of 1991, Polish President Lech Walesa described Lithuanian-Polish relations as "close to critical."”
  2. ^ Antanas Valionis, Evaldas Ignatavièius, Izolda Brièkovskienë. From Solidarity to Partnership: Lithuanian-Polish Relations 1988-1998. Lithuanian Foreign Policy Review, 1998, issue 2. Retrieved on 2008-03-29. “The interval between the restoration of diplomatic relations in September 1991 and the signing of the Treaty on Friendly Relations and Good Neighborly Cooperation on April 26, 1994 was probably the most difficult period for Lithuanian-Polish relations (there were even assertions that relations in this period were “in some ways even worse than before the war”).”
  3. ^ a b Population by ethnicity. Data from Statistikos Departamentas, 2001 Population and Housing Census.
  4. ^ Population by ethnicity and mother tongue. Data from Statistikos Departamentas, 2001 Population and Housing Census.
  5. ^ a b Population by some ethnicities by county and municipality. Data from Statistikos Departamentas, 2001 Population and Housing Census.
  6. ^ Atlas of Lithuanian SSR, Moscow, 1981 (in Russian), p.129
  7. ^ Data from Statistikos Departamentas
  8. ^ Mercator - Education information, documentation, research. The Polish language education in Lithuania[dead link]see: graph on p.12 (PDF file, 2.2 MB) Accessed 2008-01-16.
  9. ^ a b "Атлас Литовской ССР" 1981, Государственный плановый комитет Литовской ССР. Министерство высшего и среднего специального образования Литовской ССР. Главное управление геодезии и картографии при Совете Министров СССР. Москва 1981.
  10. ^ Mercator - Education information, documentation, research. The Polish language education in Lithuania[dead link]see: graph on p.16 (PDF file, 2.2 MB) Accessed 2008-01-14.
  11. ^ (1986) Encyclopedia of Soviet Lithuania Vol. 2. 
  12. ^ Walter C. Clemens (1991). Baltic Independence and Russian Empire. St. Martin's Press, p.150. ISBN 0-312-04806-8. “In reality, many Poles in Lithuania were the offspring of Polonized Lithuanians or Belarussians.” 
  13. ^ (2007) Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia Vol. 11. 
  14. ^ (Polish) "Drugi Powszechny Spis Ludności z dnia 9 XII 1931 r." (1939). Statystyka Polski D (34).  See ethnic history of the region of Vilnius for details.
  15. ^ (2003) Karo archyvas XVIII (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Generolo Jono Žemaičio Lietuvos karo akademija, pp.188-189. ISSN 1392-6489. 
  16. ^ Juozas, Rainys (1936). P.O.W. : (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa) Lietuvoje. Kaunas: Spaudos fondas, 184. 
  17. ^ Julius, Būtėnas; Mečys Mackevičius (1995). Mykolas Sleževičius: advokatas ir politikas. Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla, 263. ISBN 9986-413-31-1. 
  18. ^ Lesčius, Vytautas (2004). Lietuvos kariuomenė nepriklausomybės kovose 1918-1920. Vilnius: Vilnius University, Generolo Jono Žemaičio Lietuvos karo akademija, p.269. 
  19. ^ a b c Michael MacQueen, The Context of Mass Destruction: Agents and Prerequisites of the Holocaust in Lithuania, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 1, pp. 27-48, 1998, [1]
  20. ^ Fearon, James D.; Laitin, David D. (2006). Lithuania (pdf) (english) 4. Stanford University. Retrieved on 2008-06-02. “The nationalizing Lithuanian state took measures to confiscate Polish owned land. It also restricted Polish religious services, schools, Polish publications, Polish voting rights. Poles were often referred to in the press in this period as the "lice of the nation".”
  21. ^ Does not include Vilnius and Klaipėda regions. Census of 1923 is the only census carried out in Lithuania during the interwar period. (Lithuanian) Vaitiekūnas, Stasys (2006). Lietuvos gyventojai: Per du tūkstantmečius. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 189. ISBN 5-420-01585-4. 
  22. ^ Fearon, James D.; Laitin, David D. (2006). Lithuania (pdf) (english) 4. Stanford University. Retrieved on 2008-06-02. “Lithuanian nationalists resented demands by Poles for greater cultural autonomy (similar to that granted to the Jewish minority), holding that most of Lithuania's Poles were really deracinated Lithuanians who merely needed to be re-Lithuanianized. Resentments were exacerbated when Lithuanian Poles expressed a desire to "re-unite" the country with Poland. As a result, the nationalizing Lithuanian state took measures to confiscate Polish owned land. It also restricted Polish religious services, schools, Polish publications, Polish voting rights. Poles were often referred to in the press in this period as the "lice of the nation"”
  23. ^ Eberhardt, Piotr. Liczebność i rozmieszczenie ludności polskiej na Litwie (Numbers and distribution of Polish population in Lithuania)] (Polish). Retrieved on 2008-06-02. “Było to już po masowej "repatriacji" Polaków z Wileńszczyzny, która w latach 1945-1948 objęła 197 tys. Polaków (w tym z Wilna - 107,6 tys.) oraz kolejnej z lat 1956-1959, która umożliwiła wyjazd do Polski 46,6 tys. osób narodowości polskiej.”
  24. ^ Stravinskienė, Vitalija (2004). "Poles In Lithuania From The Second Half Of 1944 Until 1946: Choosing Between Staying Or Emigrating To Poland (English Summary)". Lietuvos istorijos metraštis 2. 
  25. ^ a b c d e f (English) Dovile Budryte (2005). Taming Nationalism?: Political Community Building in the Post-Soviet Baltic States. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 147-148. ISBN 0754637573. 
  26. ^ a b c Eberhardt, Piotr. Liczebność i rozmieszczenie ludności polskiej na Litwie (Numbers and distribution of Polish population in Lithuania)] (Polish). Retrieved on 2008-06-02.
  27. ^ Fearon, James D.; Laitin, David D. (2006). Lithuania (pdf) (english) 4. Stanford University. Retrieved on 2008-06-02. “For example, in Vilnius where in the Soviet years education in Polish was offered by some 13–14 schools, only 25 percent of the children born to monoethnic Polish families attended Polish schools. Fifty percent of them chose Russian schools, and only 10 per cent Lithuanian schools.”
  28. ^ Valerijus Čekmonas, Laima Grumadaitė Kalbų paplitimas rytų Lietuvoje (The distribution of the languages in the east of Lithuania) in Lietuvos rytai; straipsnių rinkinys (The east of Lithuania; the collection of the articles) Vilnius 1993; p. 132; ISBN 9986-09-002-4
  29. ^ Lithuania. Stanford University, 2006
  30. ^ a b (English) Robert G. Moser (2005 pages = p.130). Ethnic Politics After Communism. Aldershot: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801472768. 
  31. ^ (Lithuanian) BNS. Buvęs ambasadorius kritikuoja Lietuvos lenkų lyderius (Ex-ambassador criticizes leaders of Polish community). Delfi.lt. Retrieved on 2008-06-02.
  32. ^ (Polish) "Litewska prokuratura przesłuchuje weteranów AK" (in Polish) . Gazeta Wyborcza. “Vilnija to organizacja skrajna, nacjonalistyczna, której głównym celem jest likwidacja skutków wielowiekowej dominacji Polski nad Litwą i tzw. okupacji Wileńszczyzny w międzywojniu.” 
  33. ^ (Polish) Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (09 2004). "Dr Garsva - prezes nacjonalistycznego stowarzyszenia Vilnija (...)". Media zagraniczne o Polsce (Foreign Media on Poland) XIII (2409 (3162)). 
  34. ^ (Polish) "Uknuli prowokację" (November 2005). Tygodnik Wileńszczyzny. 
  35. ^ (Polish) Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (10 2006). ""Antypolski tekst K. Garsvy" (Anti-polish text by K. Garsva)". Commentary on K.Garsva article "Kiedy na Wileńszczyźnie będzie wprowadzone zarządzanie bezpośrednie? (When Vilnius region will have direct self-government?)" in Lietuvos Aidas, 11 -12.10". Media zagraniczne o Polsce (Foreign Media on Poland) XV (200/37062). [dead link]
  36. ^ (Polish) Paweł Cieplak. Polsko-litewskie stosunki (Polish-Lithuanian affairs). Lithuanian Portal. Retrieved on 2007-01-13.[dead link]
  37. ^ Leonardas Vilkas, LITEWSKA, ŁOTEWSKA I ESTOŃSKA DROGA DO NIEPODLEGŁOŚCI I DEMOKRACJI: PRÓBA PORÓWNANIA (Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian Way to Independence: An Attempt to Compare], on homepage of Jerzy Targalski, professor of University of Warsaw
  38. ^ Lithuania -Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. US Department of State, February 23, 2001. Accessed September 14, 2007.
  39. ^ (Polish) Tadeusz Andrzejewski, IX posiedzenie podzespołu ds. edukacji mniejszości narodowych w sprawach litewskiej oświaty na Sejneńszczyźnie, Tygodnik Wileńszczyzny, 23 - 29 marca 2006 r. nr 12
  40. ^ (Polish) 5 kadencja, 10 posiedzenie, 1 dzień (15.02.2006) 2 punkt porządku dziennego: Informacja Ministra Spraw Zagranicznych o zadaniach polskiej polityki zagranicznej w 2006 r.
  41. ^ (Polish) Posiedzenie Komisji w dniu 11 kwietnia 2007 roku, Komisja Spraw Emigracji i Łączności z Polakami za Granicą.
  42. ^ Memorandum to the Lithuanian Government Assessment of the progress made in implementing the 2004 recommendations of the Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights Council of Europe, 16 May 2007.
  43. ^ Ruling On The Compliance Of The Provisions Of Legal Acts Regulating The Citizenship Relations With The Constitution Of The Republic Of Lithuania
  44. ^ Polish press review - Government & Economy. Wirtualna Polska, 10/08/2007
  45. ^ RAXEN_CC National Focal Point Lithuania
  46. ^ Declaration on Friendly Relations and Good-neighbourly Co-operation between the Republic of Poland and the Republic of Lithuania. Zbiór Dokumentów, 1992
  47. ^ Przedstawiciel rządu na powiat wileński narusza Konwencję Ramową RE
  48. ^ http://www.magwil.lt/archiwum/2005/wmw-10/pazd-3.htm
  49. ^ The Divine Painting. Archived from the original on 2006-10-06.
  50. ^ News
  51. ^ (Polish) Polacy atakowani w mediach, rp.pl, 21-05-2008
  52. ^ (Polish) Litwa: Polacy zwracają się do władz o pomoc, interia.pl, 21-05-2008
  53. ^ (Polish) Związek Polaków na Litwie apeluje o zaprzestanie kampanii przeciwko mniejszościom narodowym, 21-05-2008
  54. ^ a b (Polish) AKCJA WYBORCZA POLAKÓW NA LITWIE. Encyklopedia Interia. Last accessed 20 January 2007.

[edit] Bibliography

  • Łossowski, Piotr; Bronius Makauskas (2005). "Kraje bałtyckie w latach przełomu 1934-1944", Scientific Editor Andrzej Koryna (in Polish), Warszawa: Instytut Historii PAN; Fundacja Pogranicze. ISBN 8388909428. 
  • Kupczak, Janusz M. (1998). "Z problematyki stosunków narodowościowych na Litwie współczesnej". Politologia XXII. ISSN 02396661. 
  • Zbigniew Kurcz, "Mniejszość polska na Wileńszczyźnie", Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, Wrocław 2005, ISSN 0239-6661, ISBN 83-229-2601-4.
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