Plasmodium species infecting humans and other primates
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Plasmodium bouillize |
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[edit] Species of Plasmodium infecting humans
- Plasmodium falciparum (the cause of malignant tertian malaria)
- Plasmodium vivax (the most frequent cause of benign tertian malaria)
- Plasmodium ovale (the other, less frequent, cause of benign tertian malaria)
- Plasmodium malariae (the cause of benign quartan malaria)
- Plasmodium brasilianum
- Plasmodium cynomolgi
- Plasmodium cynomolgi bastianellii
- Plasmodium inui
- Plasmodium rhodiani
- Plasmodium schweitzi
- Plasmodium semiovale
- Plasmodium simium
The first four listed here are the most common species that infect humans. With the use of the polymerase chain reaction additional species have been and are still being identified that infect humans.
One possible experimental infection has been reported with Plasmodium eylesi. Fever and low grade parasitemia were apparent at 15 days. The volunteer (Dr Bennett) had previously been infected by Plasmodium cynomolgi and the infection was not transferable to a gibbon (P. eylesi 's natural host) so this cannot be regarded as definitive evidence of its ability to infect humans. A second case has been reported that may have been a case of P. eylesi but the author was not certain of the infecting species.[1]
A possible infection with Plasmodium tenue has been reported.[2] This report described a case of malaria in a three year old black girl from Georgia, USA who had never been outside the US. She suffered from both P. falciparum and P. vivax malaria and while forms similar to those described for P. tenue were found in her blood even the author was skeptical about the validity of the diagnosis.
Confusingly Plasmodium tenue was proposed in the same year (1914) for a species found in birds. The human species is now considered to be likely to have been a misdiagnosis and the bird species is described on the Plasmodium tenue page.
Notes:
The only known host of P. falciparum are humans; neither is any other host currently known for P. malariae.
P. vivax will infect chimpanzees. Infection tends to be low grade but may be persistent and remain as source of parasites for humans for some time.
P. vivax is also known to infect orangutans.[3]
Like P. vivax, P. ovale has been shown to be transmittable to chimpanzees. P. ovale has a unusual distribution pattern being found in Africa, the Philippines and New Guinea. In spite of its admittedly poor transmission to chimpanzees given its discontigous spread, it is suspected that P. ovale may in fact be a zooenosis with an as yet unidentified host. If this is actually the case, the host seems likely to be a primate.
The remaining species capable of infecting humans all have other primate hosts.
Plasmodium shortii and Plasmodium osmaniae are now considered to be junior synonyms of Plasmodium inui
[edit] Species previously described as infecting humans but no longer recognised as valid
Taxonomy in parasitology until the advent of DNA based methods has always been a problem and revisions in this area are continuing. A number of synonoms have been given for the species infecting humans that are no longer recognised as valid.[4] Since perusal of the older literature may be confusing some currently defunct species names are listed here.
P. camerense
P. causiasium
P. golgi
P. immaculatum
P. laverani var. tertium
P. laverani var. quartum
P. malariae var. immaculatum
P. malariae var. incolor
P. malariae var. irregularis
P. malariae var. parva
P. malariae var. quartanae
P. malariae var. quotidianae
P. perniciosum
P. pleurodyniae
P. praecox
P. quartana
P. quotidianum
P. sedecimanae
P. tenue
P. undecimanae
P. vegesio-tertaniae
P. vivax-minuta
[edit] Infections in primates
Listing
The species that infect primates other than humans include: P. bouillize, P. brasilianum, P. bucki, P. cercopitheci,P. coatneyi, P. coulangesi, P. cynomolgi, P. eylesi, P. fieldi, P. foleyi, P. fragile, P. girardi, P. georgesi, P. gonderi, P. hylobati, P. inui, P. jefferyi, P. joyeuxi, P. knowlesi, P. lemuris, P. percygarnhami, P. petersi, P. reichenowi, P. rodhaini, P. sandoshami, P. semnopitheci, P. silvaticum, P. simiovale, P. simium, P. uilenbergi, P. vivax and P. youngei.
Host records - Most if not all Plasmodium species infect more than one host: the host records shown here should be regarded as being incomplete.
- P. bouillize - Cercopithecis campbelli
- P. brasilianum - Alouatta fusca, Alouatta palliata, Alouatta seniculus straminea, Alouatta villosa, several night monkey (Aotus) species, Ateles fusciceps, Ateles geoffroyi, Ateles geoffroyi grisescens, Ateles paniscus, Ateles paniscus paniscus, Ateles paniscus chamek, Brachyteles arachnoides, Callicebus moloch ornatus, Callicebus torquatus, Cebus albifrons, Cebus apella, Cebus capucinus, Cebus capucinus capucinus, Cebus capucinus imitator, Chiropotes chiropotes, Lagothrix cana, Lagothrix infumata, Lagothrix lagotricha, Saimiri boliviense and Saimiri sciureus.
- P. bucki - Lemur macaco macaco
- P. cercopitheci - Cercopithecis nictitans
- P. coatneyi - several macaque species: Macaca fascicularis and Macaca irus.
- P. coulangesi - Lemur macaco macaco
- P. cynomolgi - Macaca arctoides, Macaca cyclopis, Macaca fascicularis, Macaca mulatta, Macaca nemestrina, Macaca radiata, Macaca sinica, orangutans (Pongo), Presbytis cristatus and Presbytis entellus
- P. eylesi - several gibbon (Hylobates) species including Hylobates lar
- P. fieldi - Macaca fascicularis and Macaca nemestrina
- P. foleyi - Lemur fulvus rufus
- P. fragile - several macaque species - Macaca fascicularis, Macaca mulatta, Macaca radiata, and Macaca sinica
- P. georgesi - Cercocebus albigena
- P. girardi - Lemur fulvus rufus, Lemur macaco macaco
- P. gonderi - Mangabeys: Cercocebus albigena, Cercocebus aterrimus, Cercocebus atys, Cercocebus galeritus agilus and drills (Mandrillus leucophaeus)
- P. hylobati - several gibbon (Hylobates) species including Hylobates lar and Hylobates moloch
- P. inui - the Celebes black ape (Cynopithecus niger), Macaca fascicularis, Macaca mulatta, Macaca nemestrina, Macaca radiata and several Presbytis species
- P. joyeuxi - Cercopithecis callitricus
- P. knowlesi - Macaca fascicularis, Macaca nemestrina, and Presbytis malalophus
- P. lemuris - the lemur Lemur collaris, Lemur macaco macaco
- P. percygarnhami - Lemur macaco macaco
- P. petersi - Cercocebus albigena
- P. pitheci - orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus)
- P. sandoshami - the Malayan flying lemur (Cynocephalus variegatus)
- P. semnopitheci - Semnopithecus entellus
- P. semiovale - Macaca sinica
- P. shortii - Macaca radiata, and Macaca sinica
- P. silvaticum - orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus)
- P. simium - the woolly spider monkey (Brachyteles arachnoides) and several howler monkeys (Alouatta) species including Alouatta fusca
- P. uilenbergi - Lemur fulvus fulvus
- P. vivax - orangutans (Pongo species), chimpanzees (Pan) monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis[5], Aotus lemurinus griseimambra [6]) and tamarins (Saguinus mystax and Saguinus fuscicollis)
- P. youngei - the white handed gibbon (Hylobates lar)
[edit] Primate mosquito vectors
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albimanus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albitarsis - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) aquasalis - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) arabensis - P. falciparum
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) argyritarsi - P. vivax
- Anopheles artemievi - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) atroparvus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) aztecus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) baimaii - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) balabacensis - P. vivax
- Anopheles beklemishevi - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Kerteszia) bellator - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) benarrochi - P. vivax
- Anopheles bifurcatus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) braziliensis - P. vivax
- Anopheles claviger - P. vivax
- Anopheles coustani - P. falciparum
- Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) culicifacies - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) darlingi - P. falciparum, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) deaneorum - P. falciparum, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) dirus - P. cynomolgi, P. inui, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) dunhami - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) epiroticus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) farauti - P. coatneyi, P. vivax[7]
- Anopheles (Cellia) flavirostris - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) freeborni - P. vivax[8]
- Anopheles (Cellia) funestus - P. falciparum
- Anopheles (Cellia) fluviatilis - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) gambiae - P. falciparum, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Kerteszia) homunculus - P. vivax
- Anopheles hyrcanus - P. vivax
- Anopheles introlatus - P. cynomolgi, P. eylesi
- Anopheles kleini - P. vivax
- Anopheles kochi - P. eylesi
- Anopheles (Cellia) latens - P. knowlesi [9]
- Anopheles lesteri - P. eylesi
- Anopheles letifer - P. eylesi
- Anopheles (Cellia) leucosphyrus - P. eylesi, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) maculatus - P. eylesi, P. vivax, P. youngei
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) marajoara - P. vivax
- Anopheles maculipennis - P. vivax
- Anopheles martinius - P. vivax
- Anopheles mediopunctatus - P. falciparum, P. vivax
- Anopheles melas - P. falciparum
- Anopheles merus - P. falciparum
- Anopheles messeae - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) minimus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) moucheti - P. falciparum
- Anopheles nili - P. falciparum
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) nuneztovari - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) oswaldoi - P. falciparum, P. vivax
- Anopheles paludis - P. falciparum
- Anopheles (Anopheles) pseudopunctipennis - P. vivax
- Anopheles pulcherrimus - P. vivax
- Anopheles pullus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) punctimacula - P. vivax
- Anopheles punctipennis - P. vivax
- Anopheles quadrimaculatus - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) rangeli - P. vivax
- Anopheles riparis macarthuri - P. eylesi
- Anopheles roperi - P. eylesi
- Anopheles sacharovi - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) sergentii - P. vivax
- Anopheles (Anopheles) sinensis - P. eylesi, P. vivax
- Anopheles stephensi - P. cynomogli, P. inui, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Cellia) sundaicus - P. eylesi, P. vivax, P. youngei
- Anopheles (Cellia) superpictus - P. vivax
- Anopheles tessellatus - P. falciparum, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) triannulatus - P. falciparum, P. vivax
- Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) trinkae - P. vivax
- Anopheles umbrosus - P. eylesi
- Anopheles vagus - P. eylesi
[edit] Primate subspecies
- P. cynomolgi - P. cynomolgi bastianelli and P. cynomolgi ceylonensis.
- P. inui - P. inui inui and P. inui shortii
- P. knowlesi - P. knowlesi edesoni and P. knowlesi knowlesi.
- P. vivax - P. vivax hibernans, P. vivax chesson and P. vivax multinucleatum.
Interrelatedness - The evolution of these species is still being worked out and the relationships given here should be regarded as tentative. This grouping, while originally made on morphological grounds, now has considerable support at the DNA level.
- P. brasilianum, P. inui and P. rodhaini are similar to P. malariae
- P. cynomolgi, P. fragile, P. knowlesi, P. simium and P. schwetzi are similar to P. vivax
- P. fieldi and P. simiovale are similar to P. ovale
- P. falciparum is closely related to P. reichenowi.
[edit] Notes
- P. kochi has been described as a parasite of monkeys. This species is currently classified as Hepatocystis kochi. This may be subject to revision.
- P. brasilianum and P. rodhaini seem likely to be the same species as P. malariae.
- P. lemuris may actually belong to the Haemoproteus genus. Clarification of this point awaits DNA examination.
- P. shortii is currently (2007) regarded as a junior synonym of P. inui.
[edit] References
- ^ Tsukamoto M. (1977) An imported human malarial case characterized by severe multiple infections of the red blood cells. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 19(2)95-104
- ^ Russel P.F. (1928) Plasmodium tenue (Stephens): A review of the literature and a case report. Am. J. Trop. Med. s1-8(5) 449-479
- ^ Reid M.J. (2006) Transmission of human and macaque Plasmodium spp. to ex-Captive orangutans in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Emerg Infect Dis. 12(12):1902-1908
- ^ Coatney G.R., Roudabush R.L. (1936) A catalog and host-index of the genus Plasmodium. J. Parasitol. 22(4): 338-353
- ^ Collins W.E., Sullivan J.S., Nace D., Williams T., Williams A., Barnwell J.W. (2008) Observations on the sporozoite transmission of Plasmodium vivax to monkeys. Parasitol. 94(1):287-288.
- ^ Collins W.E., Richardson B.B., Morris C.L., Sullivan J.S., Galland G.G. (1998) Salvador II strain of Plasmodium vivax in Aotus monkeys and mosquitoes for transmission-blocking vaccine trials. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 59(1):29-34.
- ^ Collins W.E., Sullivan J.S., Nace D., Williams T., Sullivan J.J., Galland G.G.,Grady K.K., Bounngaseng A. (2002) Experimental infection of Anopheles farauti with different species of Plasmodium. J. Parasitol. 88(2):295-298.
- ^ Collins W.E., Morris C.L., Richardson B.B., Sullivan J.S., Galland G.G. (1994) Further studies on the sporozoite transmission of the Salvador I strain of Plasmodium vivax. J. Parasitol. 80(4):512-517
- ^ Tan C.H., Vythilingam I., Matusop A., Chan S.T., Singh B. (2008) Bionomics of Anopheles latens in Kapit, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo in relation to the transmission of zoonotic simian malaria parasite Plasmodium knowlesi. Malar. J. 7:52
