People's Liberation Army invasion of Tibet (1950–1951)

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People's Liberation Army invasion of Tibet (1950-1951)

A "Peaceful Liberation" monument was raised by the PRC in 2001 to commemorate the event's 50th anniversary despite the many controversies surrounding the event.
Date 1950-1951
Location Tibet
Result
Belligerents
Tibetan Army People's Liberation Army
Strength
5,000[2] 40,000[2]
Casualties and losses
unknown unknown

The People's Liberation Army (PLA) defeated the Tibetan army in a war at Chamdo on October 7 1950. This attack marked the beginning of Beijing’s campaign to integrate Tibet into People's Republic of China. This operation is labelled an invasion by the Central Tibetan Administration[3], the US Congress[4], military analysts including Jane's,[5][6] media sources and NGOs such as the International Commission of Jurists[7] and the Center for World Indigenous Studies[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]. Instances exist, however, when the PRC government gained support from a portion of the Tibetan population, including monastic leaders[16], monks[17], nobility[18][19] and ordinary Tibetans[18] prior to the crackdown in 1959. The PRC government and some Tibetan leaders[16] characterize PLA's operation as a peaceful liberation of Tibetans from a "feudal serfdom system."[20][21]

Contents

[edit] Timeline

The People's Liberation Army first entered eastern Tibet (Chamdo) on October 7 1950.[2] The highly mobile units of the PLA quickly surrounded the outnumbered Tibetan forces, and by October 19 1950, 5,000 Tibetan troops had surrendered.[2] After confiscating their weapons, the PLA soldiers gave their prisoners lectures on socialism, and a small amount of money, and allowed them to return to their homes.[2]

The PLA then continued on to central Tibet, but halted its advance 200km to the east of Lhasa, at what China claimed was the de jure boundary of Tibet[22][13], where they stopped and demanded Tibet's "peaceful liberation."[2]

The PLA, while possessing overwhelming military advantage, was also set on winning the hearts and minds of the Tibetan populace.[2] At first, they treated the local populace very well, building roads, and paying locals for their labor.[2] According to Tenzin Gyatso, the current Dalai Lama, the PLA did not attack civilians: "The Chinese were very disciplined. They were like the British soldiers (in 1904). Even better than the British, because they distributed some money (to villagers and local leaders). So they carefully planned."[2]

The PLA sent released prisoners (among them Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme, a captured governor) to Lhasa to negotiate with the Dalai Lama on the PLA's behalf.[2] The PLA promised that if Tibet was "peacefully liberated", the Tibetan elites would keep their privileges and power. At the same time, Jigme and other released captives testified to their good treatment by the PLA.[2] As the PLA had stopped and was asking for peaceful negotiations instead of entering Lhasa unimpeded, the United Nations unanimously dropped the issue from the agenda.[2] The combination of military pressure, reports of good treatment from locals and released prisoners, and the lack of international support convinced the Tibetan representatives to enter negotiations with the PLA.[2]

Several months later, in May 1951, the Tibetan representatives signed a seventeen-point agreement in Beijing with the PRC's Central People's Government affirming China's sovereignty over Tibet. The agreement was ratified in Lhasa a few months later.[23][1] Point 15 of the agreement stated that the Chinese government would set up a military and administrative committee and a military area headquarters in Tibet. PLA troops entered Lhasa peacefully in the fall of 1951.[1] An article releasd by the Tibetan Government in Exile in 1996 states that the treaty was imposed on Tibet by force and it "was never validly concluded and was rejected by Tibetans"[24], a position that was supported by a UK parliamentary review.[25][26]

[edit] Statistics of Casualties

Death total : claims
By Tibetan authorities based on 20+ year statistics[27] [28] [29]
433,000 military action
343,000 famine
173,000 imprisonment
157,000 execution
93,000 torture
9,000 suicide.
Total: 1,148,000 deaths.
By Chinese authorities[citation needed]
87,000 all causes
Important notes:
These values are highly controversial since :
  • Tibetan 1953's census recorded a population of 1,273,969 for Tibet.[30]
  • Schoolards noticed unchecked duplication and probable insertion of random figures

[edit] Tibetans

Samdhong Rinpoche, the 14th Dalai Lama, and other Tibetans in exile have accused the PRC government of a campaign of terror which led to the destruction of monasteries and disappearance of up to 1.2 million Tibetans. By 1962 only 70 of the original 2,500 monasteries in the Tibet Autonomous Region were left and 93% of the monks were forced out. The "1.2 million" figure for deaths since 1950 dates to a figure from the Tibetan Government-in-exile which they break down to 433,000 through military action, 343,000 through famine, 173,000 through imprisonment, 157,000 through execution, 93,000 through torture and 9,000 through suicide.[31]

The high casualty reported by the Tibetans has been questioned by western scholars. Tom Grunfeld finds that the figure is "without documentary evidence."[32] According to Patrick French, a supporter of the Tibetan cause who was able to view the data and calculations, the estimate is not reliable. French says this total was based on refugee interviews, but when he examined the raw data, he found no names, but "the insertion of seemingly random figures into each section, and constant, unchecked duplication."[33] Prior to 1950, population figures for Tibet, estimated by the Lhasa government and foreign visitors, generally ranged from 1 to 1.5 million. The official Tibetan census in 1953 only recorded a population of 1,273,969.[30]

A document allegedly sourced to the PLA claims 87,000 deaths in the 1959-60 period.[34]

[edit] Perspective

[edit] Chinese Communist Party perspective

Traditionally, a portion of the population in Tibet were serfs ("mi ser"),[35][36] bound to land often owned by wealthy Tibetan monasteries and Tibetan aristocrats. This however was untrue of eastern and northeastern two-thirds of Tibet where the nomads owned their own land.[37] The Chinese government claims that most Tibetans were still serfs in 1951, and have proclaimed that the Tibetan government inhibited the development of Tibet during its self-rule from 1913 to 1959, and opposed any modernization efforts proposed by the Chinese government.[38] Announcements were made via Radio Peking on October 25 to state the troops were there to "free Tibetans from imperialist oppression".[39] First generation Communist party leaders such as Mao Zedong stated that the decision to unite Tibet into the PRC was done to achieve ethnic equality.[40]

In July 2001 a monument was established to commermorate the event.[40] Beijing says that Tibet was under an uninterrupted series of Chinese governments that has ruled Tibet and China since Genghis Khan. In 2005 president Hu Jintao asserted Tibet has been an "inalienable part of Chinese territory" from the time of the Mongol conquest onward. This has been taught to Chinese students since 1912.[2]

[edit] Other perspectives

The UN General Assembly passed resolutions condemning China for "violations of fundamental human rights of the Tibetan people" in 1959,[41] 1961[42] and 1965.[43] German Federal Parliament held hearings on Tibet on June 19 1995, and passed a resolution on June 20 1996 stating they were "deeply concerned that this independent identity has been threatened by destruction since the Chinese action by brutal force of arms in 1950" and that China had deprived the Tibetans of self-determination.[44] The US Congressional Human Rights Caucus in 1987 reviewed testimony from Tibetans who detailed human rights abuses, resulting in a congressional motion that condemned Chinese actions in Tibet.[45] In 2006 a lawsuit was filed by the Madrid-based Committee to Support Tibet in a Spanish court. The group said that more than one million Tibetans had been killed or gone missing since China occupied Tibet in 1951.[46] The China Quarterly notes that there has been "little easing in Chinese repression there nor any improvement in the anti-Chinese attitude of the local population."[47]

[edit] 'Feudal serfdom'

The PRC government makes regular claims that, prior to 1959, some 95% of Tibetans were subject to a very oppressive system which they describe as “feudal serfdom.” The vast majority of Tibetans are said to have had no land or freedom, lived under appalling conditions, were regarded as saleable property and were subject to extreme punishments and torture.

Many Western scholars dispute these assertions and, especially, the moral implications and value judgments implied, and even that the term “serf” is applicable to peasants within the system then in force in Tibet. They point out that similar situations applied to “most sectors of any society in Asia and elsewhere until recently, including China, and is still true today in many areas.”

The Chinese accusations of systematic torture and abuse are based on little evidence. Since the early 20th century only rather isolated incidents have been recorded and these few were, in fact, illegal, as mutilation and other such extreme punishments had been banned by the 13th Dalai Lama in a proclamation in 1913.[48] He also abolished capital punishment. Living conditions in jails were also improved, and officials were designated to see that these conditions and rules were maintained."[49][50].

[edit] Aftermath

The seventeen-point agreement was initially respected by the Chinese in Tibet proper. However, Eastern Kham and Amdo (the provinces of Xikang and Qinghai in the Chinese administrative hierarchy) were outside the administration of the Tibetan government in Lhasa, and were thus treated like any other Chinese province with land redistribution implemented in full.[51] Armed resistance, covertly supported by the United States government, broke out in Amdo and eastern Kham in June 1956 and escalated through the remainder of the decade, but was eventually defeated. PLA units have maintained a presence in Tibet up to the present day.

[edit] See Also

[edit] References

  1. ^ a b c Goldstein, M.C., "A History of Modern Tibet", p812-813
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Thomas Laird, The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, ISBN 080214327X, pp. 301-307
  3. ^ The Status of Tibet: "At the time of its invasion by troops of the People's Liberation Army of China in 1949, Tibet was an independent state in fact and law...."
  4. ^ US Congressional Concurrent Resolution dated May 21, 1991, "To express the sense of the Congress that Tibet, including those areas incorporated into the Chinese provinces of Sichuan, Yunnan, Gansu and Qinghai that have historically been a part of Tibet is an occupied country under established principles of international law" ... "Whereas in 1949-50, China launched an armed invasion of Tibet in contravention of international law..."
  5. ^ Jane's 'Intelligence Review', 001122: 'China invaded the country in 1959 and has since been accused of bloody tactics to reduce the indigenous population and ensure it is outnumbered by the Chinese.'
  6. ^ Reborn supremacy: China's control of Tibetan reincarnation, 21 January 2008: 'Since invading the then-independent Tibet in 1950, Beijing has ensured tight military and political control over the strategically important area.'
  7. ^ International Commission of Jurists, June 5 1959, "In 1950 China assured India that China had no intention of incorporating Tibet into China by force or otherwise and was willing to negotiate with Tibet regarding the future relationship of Tibet with China. But a few weeks later the invasion of Tibet took place..."
  8. ^ Snellgrove, David L. and Hugh Richardson. A Cultural History of Tibet, Orchard Press, (c)2003, pg 267
  9. ^ Missions to Tibet, University of Texas, Dallas, May 29, 2006: "When Communist China invaded Tibet in August 1950...."
  10. ^ Margolis, Eric. War At The Top Of The World. Routledge, (c)2002 ISBN 978-0415934688
  11. ^ Global Security: "On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was formally proclaimed in Beijing and the following year launched an armed invasion of Tibet..."
  12. ^ Tibet's Sovereignity and the Tibetan People's Right to Self-Determination, June 1, 1998
  13. ^ a b Rinpoche, Samdhong. Roebert, Donovan. The 14th Dalai Lama. [2006] (2006). Samdhong Rinpoche: Uncompromising Truth for a Compromised World: Tibetan Buddhism and Today's World. World Wisdom, Inc. ISBN 1933316209. pg 116-117
  14. ^ "Improving the Human Rights Situation in Tibet." German Bundestag parliamentary resolution, Bonn, Germany, 20 June, 1996
  15. ^ Richter, Conrad. "Tibetan Response to China's White on Tibet." Center for World Indigenous Studies, Olympia, WA, 1999
  16. ^ a b Goldstein, Melvyn C., "A history of modern Tibet", pp683-687
  17. ^ Ford, R. W., "Wind between the Worlds", p178, saying: ' There was no sacking of monasteries at this time. On the contrary, the Chinese took great care not to cause offense through ignorance. They soon had the monks thanking the gods for their deliverance. '
  18. ^ a b Grunfeld, A.T., "The Making of Modern Tibet", p115, saying: ' By most accounts there were some Tibetans who were pleased to see the Han in Tibet. Peter Aufschneiter told British diplomats in Kathmandu that ordinary Tibetans liked the Han because they were honest and they distributed land. Among the younger generation of the nobility it was seen as an opportunity to make some positive changes. '
  19. ^ Grunfeld, A.T., "The Making of Modern Tibet", M. E. Sharpe, 1996, p127, saying ' When the communists first arrived in Lhasa, only a few of the aristocracy joined them enthusiastically. In Kham, however, the upper classes welcomed them as potential liberators from the strongly disliked Lhasan officials. '
  20. ^ Xinhuanet.com. "Xinhuanet.com." 人民解放軍和平解放西藏.
  21. ^ "[1]." Full Text of Speech By Chinese President Hu Jintao at Tibet's Peaceful Liberation Anniversary Rally
  22. ^ Li T.T., "Historical Status of Tibet"(New York, Columbia University Press, 1956) saying: "Chamdo is in Kham and outside of Tibet proper. The Chinese Communist army, though it had captured Chamdo, which was considered a part of Sikang, could not be said to have entered Tibet proper"
  23. ^ Gyatso, Tenzin, Dalai Lama XIV, interview, 25 July 1981.
  24. ^ Invasion and illegal annexation of Tibet: 1949-1951
  25. ^ House of Commons Publications and Records, August 13, 2006
  26. ^ The Status of Tibet
  27. ^ Rinpoche, Samdhong. Roebert, Donovan. The 14th Dalai Lama.
  28. ^ Free Tibet Campaign
  29. ^ The government of Tibet in Exile
  30. ^ a b See Leo A. Orleans,"A Note on Tibet's Population."
  31. ^ Robert McCorquodale, Nicholas Orosz (eds.) The Posiion of Tibet in International Law, Serindia Publishers.
  32. ^ Grunfield, Tom. The Making of Modern Tibet. p247.
  33. ^ Barry Sautman, June Teufel Dreyer, Contemporary Tibet: Politics, Development, And Society In A Disputed Region pp. 239
  34. ^ Grunfield, Tom. The Making of Modern Tibet. p247.
  35. ^ Goldstein, Melvyn, An Anthropological Study of the Tibetan Political System, 1968, p. 40
  36. ^ Rahul, Ram, The Structure of the Government of Tibet, 1644–1911, 1962, pp. 263–98
  37. ^ Grunfeld, Modern Tibet, 9.
  38. ^ Jiawei, Wang, "The Historical Status of China's Tibet", 2000, pp. 194–7
  39. ^ Gill, Farrer-Halls. Dalai lama. The World of the Dalai Lama: An Inside Look at his Life, His People and His Vision. [1998] (1998). ISBN 0835607682. pg 30-32
  40. ^ a b News.China.com. "News.China.com." Monument to the Peaceful liberation of tibet. Retrieved on 2008-03-18.
  41. ^ UN Resolution 1353 (XIV), 21 October 1959
  42. ^ UN Resolution 1723 (XVI), 20 December 1961
  43. ^ UN Resolution 2079 (XX), 18 December 1965
  44. ^ "Improving the Human Rights Situation in Tibet." German Bundestag parliamentary resolution, Bonn, Germany, 20 June, 1996
  45. ^ Sanchez, Renee. "Dalai Lama Urges Tibetan Freedom; In D.C. Visit, Exiled Leader Tells China to End `Great Destruction'." The Washington Post, Sept. 22, 1987
  46. ^ The Independent on-line.
  47. ^ Feinerman, James V. "Chinese Participation in the International Legal Order: Rogue Elephant or Team Player?," The China Quarterly, March 1995
  48. ^ ”What were the conditions regarding human rights in Tibet before democratic reform?” By Robert Barnett in: Authenticating Tibet: Answers to China’s 100 Questions, pp. 81-83. Eds. Anne-Marie Blondeau and Katia Buffetrille. (2008) university of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24464-1 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-520-24928-8 (paper).
  49. ^ Norbu, Thubten Jigme and Turnbull, Colin M. (1968). Tibet: An account of the history, the religion and the people of Tibet. Reprint: Touchstone Books. New York. ISBN 0-671-20559-5, p. 317.
  50. ^ Laird, Thomas. (2006). The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, p. 244. Grove Press, New York. ISBN 978-0-8021-1827-1.
  51. ^ Grunfeld, Modern Tibet, 9.