Ottoman military reform efforts
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| Sipahi - Akinci - Timariot - Janissary - Nizam-ı Cedid |
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| Navy - Air Force | ||
| Conflicts: | Europe - Russian - Serbian - Near East - Sieges and Landings | |
| See also: | Reform - Naval treaties - Kaptan Pashas | |
When Selim III came to the throne in 1789 an ambitious effort of military reform was launched, geared towards securing the Ottoman Empire. The sultan and those who surrounded him were conservative and desired to preserve the status quo. No one in power in the Empire had any interest in social transformation.
Western military advisors were imported but their abilities to enact change were limited. A parade of French officers were brought in, and none of them could do a great deal. One example of an advisor who achieved limited success was the François Baron de Tott, a French officer. He did succeed in having a new foundry built to make artillery. As well he directed the construction of a new naval base. Unfortunately it was almost impossible for him to divert soldiers from the regular army into the new units. The new ships and guns that made it into service were too few to have much of an influence on the Ottoman army and de Tott returned home.
When they had requested French help, a young artillery officer by the name of Napoleon Bonaparte was to be sent to Istanbul. He did not go, for just days before he was to embark for the Near East he proved himself useful to the Directory by putting down a Parisian mob in the Whiff of Grape-Shot and was kept in France.
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[edit] The Janissaries
The most important change was the creation of an elite new infantry unit; the nizam-i jedid was set up with western uniforms, weapons, and training. This group offended the Janissaries, however. Once elite forces, the Janissaries had become a conservative elite using their military power to advance themselves commercially and politically.
In 1806 the Janissaries, with support of the ulema and the provincial governors revolted against the Sultan and his new force and replaced him with Mustafa IV. In 1808 he was replaced by Mahmud II-with martial law of Alemdar Mustafa Pasha who restarted the reform efforts. His first actions was to ally with the Janissaries to break the power of the provincial governors. He then turned on the Janissaries, massacring them in their barracks in Istanbul and the provincial capitals in 1826.
The Sultan now set himself to replace the Janissaries by other regular troops. The Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 did not give him time to organize a new army. He fought with these young and undisciplined recruits against the veterans of the Tsar. The war was brought to a close by the disastrous treaty of Adrianople. Again these reforms were implemented mainly to improve the military. British, Prussian and French advisors were imported. Most importantly a series of schools teaching everything from math to medicine were set up to train the new officers.
[edit] The Nizamis
Sultan, Abdul Medjid enjoyed several years of peace, which have enabled him to form a powerful and well disciplined army, which was established at the beginning of the year 1842.
[edit] Organization
It is divided into six separate armies (tr:Ordu). Each of these consists of two services, the Active (tr:Nizamia), and the Reserve, (tr:Riyadiks). The former contains two corps, under the command of their respective lieutenant-generals (tr: ) and the latter, also two corps, commanded in time of peace by a brigadier (tr:Liva); the whole Ordu being under the orders of a field-marshal (tr:Mushir).
The general staff of each army is composed of a commander-in-chief, two lieutenant-generals, three brigadiers of infantry, one of whom commands the reserve, two brigadiers of cavalry, and one brigadier of artillery. In each corps there are three regiments of infantry, two of cavalry, and one of artillery, with thirty-three guns. The total strength of these twelve regiments of the active force was 30,000 men, but it was diminished in time of peace by furlough to an effective strength of about 25,000 men in three of the six armies, and of 15,000 in the other three, a consequence of the recruiting system being as yet incomplete in its application all over the Ottoman Empire. The whole establishment of this branch amounts, therefore, to 180,000 men, belonging to the active service, but its effective strength is at present 123,000.
The reserve of four of the six armies consists in eleven regiments of six of infantry, four of cavalry, and one of artillery; composing a force of 12,000 effective soldiers, while the other two armies have notvet their reserve of soldiers who have served five years. In time of war, however, the reserve would form two corps of 25,000 men in each army; giving a total of 300,000. The two services, therefore, as they now stand, form an effective force of 835,000 men; and when their full strength shall have been filled up it will amount to 480,000.
Besides these six armies there are four detached corps; These four corps raise the effective strength of the standing army to 365,000 men.
- the Island of Crete, consisting of three regiments of infantry and one of cavalry, in all 11,000 men;
- the Pashalik of Tripoli in Africa, composed of one regiment of infantry and one of cavalry, about 5,000 strong;
- the Pashalik of Tunis, composed of one regiment of infantry and one of cavalry, about 5,000 strong;
- the central artillery corps,
- a brigade of sappers and miners with engineer officers,
- the veteran artillery brigade,
- the permanent artillery garrisons of the fortresses on the
- The Hellespont,
- The Bosphorus,
- The Danube, in Serbia, on the Adriatic,
- The coast of Asia Minor, in the islands of the Archipelago,
- the southern shores of the Black Sea; in all 9,000 men.
Besides augmentation of 32,000 men by the submission of Bosnia and Northern Albania to the new system; and a further increase of 40,000 men, whom Serbia has engaged to furnish, may be calculated, as well as 18,000 men serving in Egypt, who are destined to reinforce the reserve of the fifth army.
The marines, sailors, and workmen, enrolled in brigades, amount to 34,000 men; The grand total of armed men at the disposal of Ottomans, in the event of her existing resources being called into play, may, therefore, be quoted at no less than 664,000 men, without having recourse to occasional levies, which are more easily and efficiently realized in Ottoman Empire than in any other country.
[edit] Police Force
Police force, picketed all over the Empire, is nearly 30,000 strong.
- needs extension.
[edit] Footnote
- ^ Section based on the article by THE INTERNATIONAL MAGAZINE 1855.
