Old English language

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"Old English" redirects here. For other uses, see Old English (disambiguation).
Old English / Anglo-Saxon
Englisc
Spoken in: What is now England (except Cornwall), parts of what is now Scotland south of the Forth, and the eastern fringes of what is now Wales.
Language extinction: developed into Middle English by the 12th century
Language family: Indo-European
 Germanic
  West Germanic
   Anglo-Frisian
    Anglic
     Old English / Anglo-Saxon
Language codes
ISO 639-1: none
ISO 639-2: ang
ISO 639-3: ang
Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode.

Old English (also called Anglo-Saxon,[1] Englisc by its speakers) is an early form of the English language that was spoken and written in parts of what are now England and southern Scotland between the mid-5th century and the mid-12th century. What survives through writing represents primarily the literary register of Anglo-Saxon. It is a West Germanic language and is closely related to Old Frisian. It also experienced heavy influence from Old Norse, a member of the related North Germanic group of languages.

Contents

[edit] Development

Further information: History of the English language

Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of approximately 700 years (see Timeline of the Anglo-Saxon invasion and takeover of Britain) – from the Anglo-Saxon migrations that created England in the fifth century to some time after the Norman invasion of 1066, when the language underwent a dramatic transition. During this early period it assimilated some aspects of the languages with which it came in contact, such as the Celtic languages and the two dialects of Old Norse from the invading Vikings, who were occupying and controlling large tracts of land in northern and eastern England, which came to be known as the Danelaw.

[edit] Germanic origins

The most important force in shaping Old English was its Germanic heritage in its vocabulary, sentence structure and grammar which it shared with its sister languages in continental Europe. Some of these features were specific to the West Germanic language family to which Old English belongs, while some other features were inherited from the Proto-Germanic language from which all Germanic languages are believed to have been derived.

Like other West Germanic languages of the period, Old English was fully inflected with five grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and instrumental, though the instrumental was very rare), which had dual plural forms for referring to groups of two objects (but only in the personal pronouns) in addition to the usual singular and plural forms. It also assigned gender to all nouns, including those that describe inanimate objects: for example, sēo sunne (the Sun) was feminine, while se mōna (the Moon) was masculine (cf. modern German die Sonne vs. der Mond).

[edit] Latin influence

A large percentage of the educated and literate population (monks, clerics, etc.) were competent in Latin, which was the scholarly and diplomatic lingua franca of Europe at the time. It is sometimes possible to give approximate dates for the entry of individual Latin words into Old English based on which patterns of linguistic change they have undergone. There were at least three notable periods of Latin influence. The first occurred before the ancestral Saxons left continental Europe for Britain. The second began when the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity and Latin-speaking priests became widespread. The third and largest single transfer of Latin-based words happened after the Norman invasion of 1066, after which an enormous number of Norman words entered the language. Most of these Oïl language words were themselves derived from Old French and ultimately from classical Latin, although a notable stock of Norse words were introduced, or re-introduced in Norman form. The Norman Conquest approximately marks the end of Old English and the advent of Middle English.

One of the ways the influence of Latin can be seen is that many Latin words for activities came to also be used to refer to the people engaged in those activities, an idiom carried over from Anglo-Saxon but using Latin words. This can be seen in words like militia, assembly, movement, and service.

The language was further altered by the transition away from the runic alphabet (also known as futhorc or fuþorc) to the Latin alphabet, which was also a significant factor in the developmental pressures brought to bear on the language. Old English words were spelt as they were pronounced; the "silent" letters in many Modern English words, such as the k in knight, were in fact pronounced in Old English. For example, the c in cniht, the Old English ancestor of the modern knight, was pronounced. Another side-effect of spelling words phonetically was that spelling was extremely variable – the spelling of a word would reflect differences in the phonetics of the writer's regional dialect, and also idiosyncratic spelling choices which varied from author to author, and even from work to work by the same author. Thus, for example, the word and could be spelt either and or ond.

Old English spelling can therefore be regarded as even more jumbled than modern English spelling, although it can at least claim to reflect some existing pronunciation, while modern English in many cases cannot. Most present-day students of Old English learn the language using normalised versions and are only introduced to variant spellings after they have mastered the basics of the language.

[edit] Viking influence

The approximate extent of Old Norse and related languages in the early 10th century:       Old West Norse dialect       Old East Norse dialect       Old Gutnish dialect       Crimean Gothic       Old English       Other Germanic languages with which Old Norse still retained some mutual intelligibility
The approximate extent of Old Norse and related languages in the early 10th century:       Old West Norse dialect       Old East Norse dialect       Old Gutnish dialect       Crimean Gothic       Old English       Other Germanic languages with which Old Norse still retained some mutual intelligibility

The second major source of loanwords to Old English were the Scandinavian words introduced during the Viking invasions of the 9th and 10th centuries. In addition to a great many place names, these consist mainly of items of basic vocabulary, and words concerned with particular administrative aspects of the Danelaw (that is, the area of land under Viking control, which included extensive holdings all along the eastern coast of England and Scotland). The Vikings spoke Old Norse, a language related to Old English in that both derived from the same ancestral Proto-Germanic language. It is very common for the intermixing of speakers of different dialects, such as those that occur during times of political unrest, to result in a mixed language, and one theory holds that exactly such a mixture of Old Norse and Old English helped accelerate the decline of case endings in Old English. Apparent confirmation of this is the fact that simplification of the case endings occurred earliest in the North and latest in the Southwest, the area farthest away from Viking influence. Regardless of the truth of this theory, the influence of Old Norse on the English language has been profound: responsible for such basic vocabulary items as sky, leg, the pronoun they, the verb form are, and hundreds of other words.

[edit] Celtic influence

Traditionally, many maintain that the influence of Celtic on English has been small, citing the small number of Celtic loanwords taken into the language. The number of Celtic loanwords is of a lower order than either Latin or Scandinavian; distinctive Celtic traits have been argued to be clearly discernible from the post-Old English period in the area of syntax.[2]

[edit] Dialects

To complicate matters further, Old English had many dialects. The four main dialectal forms of Old English were Mercian, Northumbrian (known collectively as Anglian), Kentish, and West Saxon.[3] Each of those dialects was associated with an independent kingdom on the island. Of these, all of Northumbria and most of Mercia were overrun by the Vikings during the 9th century. The portion of Mercia and all of Kent that were successfully defended were then integrated into Wessex.

After the process of unification of the diverse Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in 878 by Alfred the Great, there is a marked decline in the importance of regional dialects. This is not because they stopped existing; regional dialects continued even after that time to this day, as evidenced both by the existence of middle and modern English dialects later on, and by common sense – people do not spontaneously develop new accents when there is a sudden change of political power.

The first page of the Beowulf manuscript
The first page of the Beowulf manuscript

However, the bulk of the surviving documents from the Anglo-Saxon period are written in the dialect of Wessex, Alfred's kingdom. It seems likely that with consolidation of power, it became necessary to standardise the language of government to reduce the difficulty of administering the more remote areas of the kingdom. As a result, paperwork was written in the West Saxon dialect. Not only this, but Alfred was passionate about the spread of the vernacular and brought many scribes to his region from Mercia in order that previously unwritten texts be recorded.

The Church was affected likewise, especially since Alfred initiated an ambitious programme to translate religious materials into English. In order to retain his patronage and ensure the widest circulation of the translated materials, the monks and priests engaged in the programme worked in his dialect. Alfred himself seems to have translated books out of Latin and into English, notably Pope Gregory I's treatise on administration, "Pastoral Care".

Because of the centralisation of power and the Viking invasions, there is little or no written evidence for the development of non-Wessex dialects after Alfred's unification.

[edit] Grammar

[edit] Phonology

Main article: Old English phonology

The inventory of classical Old English (i.e. Late West Saxon) surface phones, as usually reconstructed, is as follows.

  Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Stop p  b     t  d     k  g  
Affricate         tʃ  (dʒ)      
Nasal m     n     (ŋ)  
Fricative   f  (v) θ  (ð) s  (z) ʃ (ç) (x)  (ɣ) h
Approximant       r   j w  
Lateral approximant       l        

The sounds marked in parentheses in the chart above are allophones:

  • [dʒ] is an allophone of /j/ occurring after /n/ and when geminated
  • [ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ occurring before /k/ and /g/
  • [v, ð, z] are allophones of /f, θ, s/ respectively, occurring between vowels or voiced consonants
  • [ç, x] are allophones of /h/ occurring in coda position after front and back vowels respectively
  • [ɣ] is an allophone of /g/ occurring after a vowel, and, at an earlier stage of the language, in the syllable onset.
Monophthongs Short Long
Front Back Front Back
Close i  y u iː  yː uː
Mid e  (ø) o eː  (øː) oː
Open æ ɑ æː ɑː

The front mid rounded vowels /ø(ː)/ occur in some dialects of Old English, but not in the best attested Late West Saxon dialect.

Diphthongs Short (monomoraic) Long (bimoraic)
First element is close iy[4] iːy
Both elements are mid eo eːo
Both elements are open æɑ æːɑ

[edit] Morphology

Main article: Old English morphology

Unlike modern English, Old English is a language rich with morphological diversity and is spelled essentially as it is pronounced. It maintains several distinct cases: the nominative, accusative, genitive, dative and (vestigially) instrumental, remnants of which survive only in a few pronouns in modern English.

[edit] Syntax

[edit] Word order

The word order of Old English is widely believed to be subject-verb-object (SVO) as in modern English and most Germanic languages (not including German and Dutch). The word order of Old English, however, was not overly important due to the aforementioned morphology of the language. So long as declension was correct, it didn't matter whether you said "My name is..." as "Mīn nama is..." or "Nama mīn is..."

[edit] Questions

Due to its similarity with Old Norse, it is believed that the word order of Old English changed when asking a question, from SVO to VSO; i.e. swapping the verb and the subject.

"You are..." becomes "Are you...?"
"Þū bist..." becomes "Bist þū...?"

[edit] Orthography

The runic alphabet used to write Old English before the introduction of the Latin alphabet.
The runic alphabet used to write Old English before the introduction of the Latin alphabet.

Old English was at first written in runes (futhorc), but shifted to the Latin alphabet, with some additions, after the Anglo-Saxons' conversion to Christianity. The letter yogh, for example, was adopted from Irish; the letter eth was an alteration of Latin d, and the runic letters thorn and wynn are borrowings from futhorc. Also used was a symbol for the conjunction and, a character similar to the number seven (⁊, called a Tironian note), and a symbol for the relative pronoun þæt, a thorn with a crossbar through the ascender ('OE thaet.png'). Also used occasionally were macrons over vowels, abbreviations for following m’s or n’s. All of the sound descriptions below are given using IPA symbols.

[edit] The alphabet

  • a: /ɑ/ (spelling variations like land/lond "land" suggest it may have had a rounded allophone [ɒ] before [n] in some cases)
  • ā: /ɑː/
  • æ: /æ/
  • ǣ: /æː/
  • b: /b/
  • c (except in the digraphs sc and cg): either /tʃ/ or /k/. The /tʃ/ pronunciation is sometimes written with a diacritic by modern editors: most commonly ċ, sometimes č or ç. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always /k/; word-finally after i it is always /tʃ/. Otherwise a knowledge of the historical linguistics of the word in question is needed to predict which pronunciation is needed. (See The distribution of velars and palatals in Old English for details.)
  • cg: [ddʒ] (the surface pronunciation of geminate /jj/); occasionally also for /gg/
  • d: /d/
  • e: /e/
  • ē: /eː/
  • ea: /æɑ/; after ċ and ġ, sometimes /æ/ or /ɑ/
  • ēa: /æːɑ/; after ċ and ġ, sometimes /æː/
  • eo: /eo/; after ċ and ġ, sometimes /o/
  • ēo: /eːo/
  • f: /f/ and its allophone [v]
  • g: /g/ and its allophone [ɣ]; /j/ and its allophone [dʒ] (when after n). The /j/ and [dʒ] pronunciations are sometimes written ġ or ȝ by modern editors. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always [g] (word-initially) or [ɣ] (after a vowel). Word-finally after i it is always /j/. Otherwise a knowledge of the historical linguistics of the word in question is needed to predict which pronunciation is needed. (See The distribution of velars and palatals in Old English for details.)
  • h: /h/ and its allophones [ç, x]. In the combinations hl, hr, hn and hw, the second consonant was certainly voiceless.
  • i: /i/
  • ī: /iː/
  • ie: /iy/; after ċ and ġ, sometimes /e/
  • īe: /iːy/; after ċ and ġ, sometimes /eː/
  • k: /k/ (rarely used)
  • l: /l/; probably velarised (as in Modern English) when in coda position.
  • m: /m/
  • n: /n/ and its allophone [ŋ]
  • o: /o/
  • ō: /oː/
  • oe: /ø/ (in dialects with this sound)
  • ōe: /øː/ (in dialects with this sound)
  • p: /p/
  • q: /k/ – Used before u representing the consonant /w/, but rarely used, being rather a feature of Middle English. Old English preferred cƿ or in modern print cw.
  • r: /r/; the exact nature of r is not known. It may have been an alveolar approximant [ɹ], as in most Modern English accents, an alveolar flap [ɾ], or an alveolar trill [r].
  • s: /s/ and its allophone [z]
  • sc: /ʃ/ or occasionally /sk/
  • t: /t/
  • ð/þ: /θ/ and its allophone [ð]. Both symbols were used more or less interchangeably (to the extent that if there was a rule, it was to avoid using ð word-initially, but this was by no means universally followed). Many modern editions preserve the use of these two symbols as found in the original manuscripts, but some attempt to regularise them in some fashion, for example using only the þ. See also Pronunciation of English th.
  • u: /u/
  • ū: /uː/
  • ƿ (wynn): /w/, replaced in modern print by w to prevent confusion with p.
  • x: /ks/ (but according to some authors, [xs ~ çs])
  • y: /y/
  • ȳ: /yː/
  • z: /ts/. Rarely used as ts was usually used instead, for example bezt vs betst "best", pronounced /betst/.

Doubled consonants are geminated; the geminate fricatives ðð/þþ, ff and ss cannot be voiced.

[edit] Literature

Main article: Anglo-Saxon literature

Old English literature, though more abundant than literature of the continent before AD 1000, is nonetheless scanty. In his supplementary article to the 1935 posthumous edition of Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader, Dr. James Hulbert writes:

In such historical conditions, an incalculable amount of the writings of the Anglo-Saxon period perished. What they contained, how important they were for an understanding of literature before the Conquest, we have no means of knowing: the scant catalogs of monastic libraries do not help us, and there are no references in extant works to other compositions....How incomplete our materials are can be illustrated by the well-known fact that, with few and relatively unimportant exceptions, all extant Anglo-Saxon poetry is preserved in four manuscripts.

Old English was one of the first vernacular languages to be written down. Some of the most important surviving works of Old English literature are Beowulf, an epic poem; the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a record of early English history; and Caedmon's Hymn, a Christian religious poem. There are also a number of extant prose works, such as sermons and saints' lives, biblical translations, and translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers, legal documents, such as laws and wills, and practical works on grammar, medicine, and geography. Still, poetry is considered to be the heart of Old English literature. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, with a few exceptions, such as Bede and Caedmon.

[edit] Comparison with other historical forms of English

Old English is often erroneously used to refer to any form of English other than Modern English. The term Old English does not refer to varieties of Early Modern English such as are found in Shakespeare or the King James Bible, nor does it refer to Middle English, the language of Chaucer and his contemporaries. The following timeline helps place the history of the English language in context. The dates used are approximate dates. It is inaccurate to state that everyone stopped speaking Old English in 1099, and woke up on New Year's Day of 1100 speaking Middle English. Language change is gradual, and cannot be as easily demarcated as are historical or political events.

450–1100 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) – The language of Beowulf.

1100–1500 Middle English – The language of Chaucer.

1500–1650 Early Modern English (or Renaissance English) – The language of Shakespeare.

1650–present Modern English (or Present-Day English) – The language as spoken today.

[edit] Examples

[edit] Beowulf

The first example is taken from the epic poem Beowulf. The translation is quite literal and represents the original poetic word order. As such, it is not typical of Old English prose. The modern cognates of original words have been used whenever practical to give a close approximation of the feel of the original poem. The words in brackets are implied in the Old English by noun case and the bold words in parentheses are explanations of words which have slightly different meanings in a modern context. Notice how what was used by the poet where a word like lo or behold would be expected.

Line Original Translation
[1] Hwæt! wē Gār-Dena in geār-dagum, What! We [of] Gar-Danes(lit. spear-danes) in yore-days,
[2] þeod-cyninga, þrym gefrunon, [of] people-kings, trim(glory) apried(have learned of by asking or "prying"),
[3] hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon. how those athelings(princes) arm-strong feats framed(made).
[4] Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatum, Oft Scyld Scefing, [from] scathers(enemies) [in] threats(armed bands),
[5] monegum mægþum, meodosetla ofteah, [from] many macths(clans, groups of sons, c.f. Irish Mac-), mead-settles took,
[6] egsode eorl. Syððan ærest wearð awed earls(leaders of men). Since erst(first) [he] worth(came to be)
[7] feasceaft funden, he þæs frofre gebad, fewshiped(helpless, with "fewship") founden, he thence(from then onward) in loving care abode(lived),
[8] weox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þah, wex(waxed) under welkin(the clouds), mind's-worth(honour) got,
[9] oðþæt him æghwylc þara ymbsittendra orthat(until that) him each [of] those umbe-sitting("sitting" or dwelling roundabout)
[10] ofer hronrade hyran scolde, over whale-road(kenning for sea) hear(obey) should(owed to),
[11] gomban gyldan. Þæt wæs god cyning! gifts [to] yield. That was [a] good king!

[edit] The Lord's Prayer

This text of The Lord's Prayer is presented in the standardised West Saxon literary dialect:

Line Original Translation
[1] Fæder ure þu þe eart on heofonum, Father ours, thou that art in heaven,
[2] Si þin nama gehalgod. Be thy name hallowed.
[3] To becume þin rice, Come thy rich(kingdom),
[4] gewurþe ðin willa, on eorðan swa swa on heofonum. Worth(manifest) thy will, on earth also as in heaven.
[5] Urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg, Our daily loaf sell(give) us today,
[6] and forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we forgyfað urum gyltendum. and forgive us our guilts as also we forgive our guilty(lit. guiltants).
[7] And ne gelæd þu us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfele. Soþlice. And 'ne lead'(lead not) thou us in temptation, ac(but) loose(release) us of evil. Soothly.

[edit] Charter of Cnut

This is a proclamation from King Canute the Great to his earl Thorkell the Tall and the English people written in AD 1020. Unlike the previous two examples, this text is prose rather than poetry. For ease of reading, the passage has been divided into sentences while the pilcrows represent the original division.

Original Translation
¶Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, twelfhynde and twyhynde, gehadode and læwede, on Englalande freondlice. ¶Cnut, king, greeteth his archbishops and his lay-bishops and Þyrchel, earl, and all his earls and all his peopleship, greater and lesser, hooded(ordained to priesthood) and lewd(lay), in England friendly.
And ic cyðe eow, þæt ic wylle beon hold hlaford and unswicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre woroldlage. And I kithe(make known/couth to) you, that I will be [a] hold(civilised) lord and unswiking(uncheating) to God's rights(laws) and to [the] rights(laws) worldly.
¶Ic nam me to gemynde þa gewritu and þa word, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghwær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið wyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan wolde. ¶I nam(took) me to mind the writs and the word that the Archbishop Lyfing me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere(everywhere) God's love(praise) uprear(promote), and unright(outlaw) lies, and full frith(peace) work(bring about) by the might that me God would(wished) [to] sell'(give).
¶Nu ne wandode ic na minum sceattum, þa while þe eow unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid godes fultume þæt totwæmde mid minum scattum. ¶Now, ne went(withdrew/changed) I not my scot(financial support, c.f. scot-free) the while that you stood(endured) unfrith(turmoil) on-hand: now I, mid(with) God's support, that [unfrith] totwemed(separated/dispelled) mid(with) my scot(financial support).
Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us wel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid þam mannum þe me mid foron into Denmearcon, þe eow mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eow næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hwile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð. Tho(then) [a] man kithed(made known/couth to) me that us more harm had found(come upon) than us well liked(equalled): and tho(then) fore(travelled) I, meself, mid(with) those men that mid(with) me fore(traveled), into Denmark that [to] you most harm came of(from): and that[harm] have [I], mid(with) God's support, afore(previously) forefangen(forestalled) that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith(breach of peace) ne come the while that ye me rightly hold(behold as king) and my life beeth.

[edit] Bibliography

[edit] Sources

  • Whitelock, Dorothy. (1955). English historical documents c. 500-1042. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode.

[edit] General

  • Baker, Peter S. (2003). Introduction to Old English. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-23454-3. 
  • Baugh, Albert C.; & Cable, Thomas. (1993). A history of the English language (4th ed.). London: Routledge.
  • Earle, John (2005). A book for the beginner in Anglo-Saxon. Bristol, PA: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 1-889758-69-8. 
  • Hogg, Richard M. (Ed.). (1992). The Cambridge history of the English language: The beginnings to 1066 (Vol. 1). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Hogg, Richard; & Denison, David (Eds.). (2006). A history of the English language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Jespersen, Otto. (1909-1949). A modern English grammar on historical principles (Vols. 1-7). Heidelberg: C. Winter.
  • Lass, Roger. (1987). The shape of English: Structure and history. London: J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd.
  • Lass, Roger (1994). Old English: A historical linguistic companion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43087-9. 
  • Millward, Celia (1996). A Biography of the English Language. Harcourt Brace. ISBN 0-15-501645-8. 
  • Mitchell, Bruce, and Robinson, Fred C. (2001). A Guide to Old English, 6th edition, Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-22636-2. 
  • Quirk, Randolph; & Wrenn, C. L. (1957). An Old English grammar (2nd ed.). London: Methuen.
  • Strang, Barbara M. H. (1970). A history of English. London: Methuen.

[edit] External history

[edit] Orthography/Palaeography

  • Bourcier, Georges. (1978). L'orthographie de l'anglais: Histoire et situation actuelle. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
  • Campbell, A. (1959). Old English grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • Elliott, Ralph W. V. (1959). Runes: An introduction. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
  • Keller, Wolfgang. (1906). Angelsächsische Paleographie, I: Einleitung. Berlin: Mayer & Müller.
  • Ker, N. R. (1957). A catalogue of manuscripts containing Anglo-Saxon. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • Page, R. I. (1973). An introduction to English runes. London: Methuen.
  • Scragg, Donald G. (1974). A history of English spelling. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

[edit] Phonology

  • Anderson, John M; & Jones, Charles. (1977). Phonological structure and the history of English. North-Holland linguistics series (No. 33). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
  • Brunner, Karl. (1965). Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet) (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
  • Campbell, A. (1959). Old English grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • Girvan Ritchie. (1931). Angelsaksisch Handboek. E. L. Deuschle (Transl.). Oudgermaansche Handboeken (No. 4). Haarlem: Tjeenk Willink.
  • Halle, Morris; & Keyser, Samuel J. (1971). English stress: Its form, its growth, and its role in verse. New York: Harper & Row.
  • Hockett, Charles F. (1959). The stressed syllabics of Old English. Language, 35 (4), 575-597.
  • Hogg, Richard M. (1992). A grammar of Old English, I: Phonology. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
  • Kuhn, Sherman M. (1961). On the syllabic phonemes of Old English. Language, 37 (4), 522-538.
  • Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970). On the consonantal phonemes of Old English. In J. L. Rosier (Ed.), Philological essays: Studies in Old and Middle English language and literature in honour of Herbert Dean Merritt (pp. 16-49). The Hague: Mouton.
  • Lass, Roger; & Anderson, John M. (1975). Old English phonology. Cambridge studies in linguistics (No. 14). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Luick, Karl. (1914-1940). Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache. Stuttgart: Bernhard Tauchnitz.
  • Maling, J. (1971). Sentence stress in Old English. Linguistic Inquiry, 2, 379-400.
  • McCully, C. B.; & Hogg, Richard M. (1990). An account of Old English stress. Journal of Linguistics, 26, 315-339.
  • Moulton, W. G. (1972). The Proto-Germanic non-syllabics (consonants). In F. van Coetsem & H. L. Kurfner (Eds.), Toward a grammar of Proto-Germanic (pp. 141-173). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
  • Sievers, Eduard. (1893). Altgermanische Metrik. Halle: Max Niemeyer.
  • Wagner, Karl Heinz. (1969). Generative grammatical studies in the Old English language. Heidelberg: Julius Groos.

[edit] Morphology

  • Brunner, Karl. (1965). Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers neubearbeitet) (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
  • Campbell, A. (1959). Old English grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • Wagner, Karl Heinz. (1969). Generative grammatical studies in the Old English language. Heidelberg: Julius Groos.

[edit] Syntax

  • Brunner, Karl. (1962). Die englische Sprache: ihre geschichtliche Entwicklung (Vol. II). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
  • van Kemenade, Ans. (1982). Syntactic case and morphological case in the history of English. Dordrecht: Foris.
  • MacLaughlin, John C. (1983). Old English syntax: A handbook. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
  • Mitchell, Bruce. (1985). Old English syntax (Vols. 1-2). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. (1972). A history of English syntax: A transformational approach to the history of English sentence structure. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
  • Visser, F. Th. (1963-1973). An historical syntax of the English language (Vols. 1-3). Leiden: E. J. Brill.

[edit] Lexicon

  • Bosworth, J.; & Toller, T. Northcote. (1898). An Anglo-Saxon dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • Cameron, Angus, et al. Dictionary of Old English. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project Centre for Medieval Studies University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1986/1994.
  • Campbell, A. (1972). An Anglo-Saxon dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • Clark Hall, J. R.; & Merritt, H. D. (1969). A concise Anglo-Saxon dictionary (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Toller, T. Northcote. (1921). An Anglo-Saxon dictionary: Supplement. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ The term Anglo-Saxon came to refer to all things of the early English period by the 16th century, including language, culture, and people. While this is still the preferred term for the latter two aspects, the language starting from the 19th century began to be called Old English. This is because the language itself began to be studied in detail, and scholars recognized the continued development of the English language from the Anglo-Saxon period to Middle English and through to the present day. However many authors still use the term Anglo-Saxon to refer to the language.
    Crystal, David (2003). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521530334. 
  2. ^ http://www.rotary-munich.de/2005-2006/theo-vennemann.pdfPDF (441 KiB)
  3. ^ Campbell, A. (1959). Old English Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 4. ISBN 0-19-811943-7. 
  4. ^ It is uncertain whether the diphthongs spelt ie/īe were pronounced [i(ː)y] or [i(ː)e]. The fact that this diphthong was merged with /y(ː)/ in many dialects suggests the former.

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

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