National myth
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- See also: National mysticism
A national myth is an inspiring narrative or anecdote about a nation's past. Such myths often serve as an important national symbol and affirm a set of national values. A national myth may sometimes take the form of a 'national epic'. A considerable amount of related material is at civil religion.
A 'national myth' may be a legend or fictionalized narrative, but have been elevated to a serious mythological, symbolical and esteemed levels to be true by the nation (Renan 1882). It might simply over-dramatize true incidents, omit important historical details, or add details for which there is no evidence; or it might simply be a fictional story that no one takes to be true literally (see Abizadeh 2004), but contains a symbolic meaning for the nation. The national folklore of many nations includes a "founding myth", which may involve a struggle against colonialism or a war of independence. In some cases, the meaning of the national myth may become disputed among different parts of the population.
In some places, the national myth may be spiritual in tone, and refer to stories of the nation's founding at the hands of God, gods, leaders favored by gods, and other supernatural beings.
National myths serve many social and political purposes. In totalitarian dictatorships, national myths often exist only for the purpose of state-sponsored propaganda. The leader might be given, for example, a mythical supernatural life history in order to make himself or herself seem god-like and supra-powerful (see also cult of personality). However national myths exist in every society, in liberal regimes they can serve the purpose of inspiring civic virtue and self-sacrifice (see Miller 1995), or shoring up the power of dominant groups and legitimating their rule.
[edit] Examples
[edit] Albania
Skanderbeg remains the cornerstone of Albanian national identity. His figure is clothed with such mystical powers that all national movements since the birth of Albanian nationalism have evoked Skanderbeg's deeds against the Ottomans in the fifteenth century. Legends abound of Skanderbeg prowess; his fiery steed who could jump from one mountaintop to the next, his powerful arm that could cut his enemy in half with a single blow, his exceptional cunning in luring the enemy and achieving the impossible, and especially his invincibility in battle. Pelasgic origin makes another Albanian nation identity.
[edit] Britain
Britannia is the principal character of the British national mythos; invented by the Romans as a personification of Great Britain, the goddess Britannia came to embody British Empire, serving as a rallying point within the newly-formed Kingdom of Great Britain in the early 19th century. She is to this day depicted carrying a shield bearing the Union flag, and a trident representing British naval supremacy.
The legend of King Arthur (the Arthurian romance) is also prominent in the mythology of Great Britain. He is the focal point in the cycle of legends known as the Matter of Britain.
[edit] Canada
The United Empire Loyalists who came to Canada following the American Revolution, has long been a national founding-myth of Canada. The story is used to suggest that Canadians are fundamentally more Tory than citizens of the United States, that is, more in tune with such values as monarchism, Anglicanism, and civil hierarchy. In recent years, however, these loyalist values have largely fallen out of fashion, and as a result the story of the loyalist migration is now used only to justify the event that started the formation of modern Canada, rather than to promote loyalist values.
The proportion of immigrants that were actually "loyalists" was likely to be significant immediately following the US revolution years, but it has been argued that much of the immigration from United States to Canada between the American Revolution and the War of 1812 was because of surplus cheap and plentiful land that was available and burgeoning business activity that resulted, rather than out of a sense of loyalty to the British crown. Immigration increased heavily over the subsequent decades of the 19th century from Europe (majority British Isles) and the vast majority of these immigrants had no such staunch loyalist affiliations.
The War of 1812 is the subject of another national myth in which Canada defines itself in opposition to the United States. Many Canadians firmly believe that Canada won the war, just as many Americans believe the opposite, with the results actually being closer to a draw despite the fact that Canada was invaded by the US, and the comment that "Canadians burnt down the White House" may be used by Canadian patriots to mock the United States.
The First World War was seen as having given rise to a Canadian identity distinct from Britain.The poem In Flanders' Fields has also achieved legendary status in Canada, still recited today at Remembrance Day ceremonies.
- Further information: Vimy
- Further information: Canada's Hundred Days
[edit] China
In both mainland China and Taiwan, the most important parts of Chinese nationalism are the invention of gunpowder, paper making, printing and the compass. The Wuchang Uprising and the creation of the Republic of China under Sun Yat-sen also forms an important part of modern Chinese nationalism.
Within the People's Republic of China, the Long March is another such event. In Taiwan, the 228 Incident has also become part of the national folklore.
Other prominent stories of Chinese nationalist ideology include the Yellow Emperor as the ancestor of all Chinese, the idea that all Chinese are the 'sons of the dragon', the concept of "5,000 years of Chinese history", and the ideology of the Zhonghua Minzu(Chinese nation).
[edit] England
The legend of King Arthur is England's most popular and enduring myth, although it is a shared with other parts of the United Kingdom, notably Wales. Many elements of Arthurian myth in English tellings draw from his Jutish counterpart, Hengest, widely considered to be the first "English" king in Britain. The 'Merry England' ideal - a romanticised notion of early rural England - is known to have in part inspired The Shire of English author J.R.R Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, and to this day informs the English national mythos; complemented and in some ways embodied by the legend of Robin Hood, whose significance may rank on a par with that of King Arthur.
Sir Francis Drake remains a national hero for his attacks on the Spanish Armada. Despite his death during a failed raid, Drake remains a legendary figure who circumnavigated the globe, destroyed dozens of Spanish warships, and (apocryphally) was the secret lover of Queen Elizabeth. His jaunty, daring attitude in the face of overwhelming opposition remains a symbol of pride for the English nation. Drake's Drum is kept at Buckland Abbey. It is claimed that it can be heard at times of national significance.
[edit] Estonia
Kalevipoeg is an epic poem by Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald held to be the Estonian national epic. The main material is taken from Estonian folklore of a giant hero named Kalevipoeg ("Kalev's Son"). These tales mainly interpret various natural objects and features as traces of Kalevipoeg's deeds and have similarities with national epics from neighbouring regions, especially the Finnish Kalevala, and also in Scandinavia.
[edit] Ethiopia
According to legend, the first emperor of Ethiopia, Menelik I, was the son of the Biblical King Solomon and Makeda, the Queen of Sheba.
[edit] Finland
The Kalevala is Finland's national epic compiled from Finnish and Karelian folk lore in 19th century by Elias Lönnrot. Its first publication in 1835 - well-timed in the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland where the first ideas of a complete independence began to form - started a surge of interest in examining "Finnishness" in paintings, sculptures, writings etc. by Finnish artists in a wave of national romanticism later termed Karelianism.
[edit] France
In the Middle Ages, the legends and myths of Charlemagne helped to consolidate and romanticize Frankish power, and Charlemagne legends spread throughout France and most of Europe. The chansons de geste relating to the Matter of France romanticize the national founding legends about Charlemagne and his paladins, Roland (of The Song of Roland) and Oliver. Originally, the Matter of France focused on the conflict between the Franks and Saracens or Moors during the period of Charles Martel and Charlemagne.
Schoolchildren in France were long taught to trace their ancestry to the Gauls. Vercingétorix is a national hero, whose defeat with grandeur is to be contrasted with the treacherous Julius Caesar. The popular cartoon and comic book character Asterix is a Gaul who resists Roman rule.
After the conquest of Soissons in 486, a soldier is said to have broken a vase to deny it to Clovis I. Years later, while reviewing the troops, Clovis broke the soldier's skull, admonishing the others to "Remember the Soissons vase." That kings never forget, or are always right, may be taken as lessons.
At one time the execution of King Louis was likewise a national myth which played up the triumph of the common people over the out-of-touch aristocracy, exemplified by Queen Marie Antoinette's statement (actually a misquote) of "Let them eat cake" when she was told the people had no bread. The French Revolution gave rise to the belief that France had a special role to carry its universal values to the world (the mission civilisatrice), which was used to justify the Napoleonic Wars and France's overseas colonial empire.
[edit] Germany
In the Battle of Teutoburg Forest of the year 9, united Germanic tribes led by Arminius defeated three Roman Legions, preventing Germania from becoming a Roman province. The historical facts were only recorded by Romans, but oral reports, in which the battle developed into a description of "slaying the dragon", might have developed into the Nibelungensaga. Written down as the Nibelungenlied in the 12th century, it connects old Norse mythology with recounts of actual history of the 5th/6th century plus contemporary events. Arminius, called Hermann by Martin Luther when the Roman records were rediscovered, became a popular figure in 19th century German nationalism, who wanted to identify themselves with the Germanic tribes, thereby giving the "German people" a long and common history. At that time, the fairy tales collected by the Brothers Grimm were important in developing a romantic conception of a folk-based German nation at a time when "Germany" was nothing more than a geographic expression comprising dozens of small states, with real princes and princesses in abundance. In collecting these traditional stories from among the people, the brothers were partially motivated by a desire to help create a German identity.
[edit] East Germany
After the Second World War, the German Democratic Republic found itself in need of a founding myth going beyond the conquest of Nazi Germany by the Soviet Red Army. The Spanish Civil War, and especially the role of the International Brigades, where considered ideal after various other historical events, such as the peasant uprisings of medieval times or the leftist parties of the Weimar Republic had been discarded as unsuitable. The war became a substantial part of East Germany's memorial rituals, aided by the fact that substantial numbers of Eastern European communist figures had served in the bridgades, and that Germany had provided many men for the brigades.[1]
[edit] Hungary
The founding myth of Hungary tells the story about Honfoglalás, the occupation of the Carpathian Basin by the seven Magyar tribes in 896, led by High Prince Árpád. According to the legend of the white horse Árpád "purchased" the whole country from the Moravian prince Svatopluk II for a beautiful white stud. Svatopluk gave water, soil and grass for the horse, not realizing that he is renouncing his rights to the country with the act. The most important symbolic places connected to Honfoglalás are Veretski Pass (Vereckei-szoros) where the Magyars beheld their new country and Ópusztaszer, the scene of the first parliament. Árpád Feszty painted an enormous 360° picture depicting Honfoglalás for the 1000th anniversary of the conquest.
Other national myths are connected to Saint Stephen, the first king of the Kingdom of Hungary and other medieval rulers, most importantly Saint Ladislaus, the model knight-king, and Matthias the Just. The 150 years fight against the Ottomans during the 16-17th centuries gave inspirations to a new set of nathional myths, most importantly about the heroic siege of Eger, the topic of a popular novel by Géza Gárdonyi, read by every Hungarian schoolchildren.
Later national myths are centered around the leaders of the two failed Hungarian uprisings against Habsburg rule, Francis II Rákóczi and Lajos Kossuth.
[edit] India
The Kathas (stories) of Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa are of immense religious and philosophical importance within the Republic of India. These two epics are traditionally called Itihāsas (Sanskrit, literally, history). The Purāṇas (Sanskrit, literally, ancient) also form a profound literary base for several traditions and beliefs of Hindus. While the Vedas, which form the source texts of Hinduism, are mostly seen as sources of elaborate rituals and metaphysics, the Itihasas together with the Puranas, being some of the most ancient writings in the world, form the major basis for the Hindu religion today.
From the Ramayana, known as the "Ādikāvya" (the first poem), the figure of Rama is venerated all over India as the embodiment of Dharma, virtue and respect. He is thus called the "Maryāda puruṣottama" (the ultimate man of respect). His wife Sita is similarly held as the embodiment of chastity and womanhood. Hanuman, the vanara servant of Rama, is held to be the model bhakta (devotee). Similarly, the Mahabharata and the Puranas provide several stories that are cherished and emulated all over India.
From later times, the Maratha king Shivaji is widely held as a symbol of valour and defiance against tyranny all over India, especially in Maharashtra. Subash Chandra Bose, Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and other participants in the Indian freedom struggle are also taught to school children as characters worthy of emulation.
[edit] Iran
Persian heroes from Shahnameh such as Rustam (symbol of power), Kaveh (symbol of fighting the tyranny and Arash (symbol of defending the country) play a vivid role in the consciousness of today's Iranians.
The Zoroastrian story about the colour of fire giving people joy is expressed in popular expressions each year during the Persian Fire Festival (Chaharshanbe Suri).
Mythological objects such as The Cup of Jamshid (Jaam-e Jam) and other mythical figures from the Persian mythology such as Scheherazade (the story-teller), Peri, Anahita, Mithra and Homa are universally known in Iran and are used for naming people, institutions, companies etc.
[edit] Ireland
St Patrick is credited with driving snakes out of Ireland.
[edit] Israel
The history of the Jewish people (including the Exodus and the story of the biblical Abraham) and the nation of Israel (referring both to the modern state of Israel and the Jewish diaspora interchangeably) is recorded in the Old Testament of the Bible. The modern state of Israel was founded based on Zionists — both Jewish and Christian — who believed that the Old Testament foretold and justified the establishment of a Jewish state in the Land of Israel.
[edit] Italy
The Roman Empire has been the source of the prominent national myths since the Middle Ages, well before the establishment of modern Italy. Risorgimento became another common theme after 1861, expressed by building a huge monument in the heart of Rome for Victor Emmanuel II of Italy. Today the focus on Risorgimento moved more to figures as Giuseppe Garibaldi and Giuseppe Mazzini (both considered criminals and dangerous radicals in their lifetimes) and prime minister Camillo Cavour, for his diplomatics skills, rather than the ousted Savoy kings.
After fascism which focused mainly on the Roman imperial traditions, political correctness demanded less patriotism in politics: the main political parties had their roots in Catholicism (that had opposed Italian unity) or Marxism, and were not keen to perpetuate patriotic national myths.
Christian heritage is important to a large sector of the population, but the role of the Church has been a matter of debate in recent years.
In popular culture, Italian food and football (especially the 1982 victory) are also important themes.
[edit] Japan
The legendary founder and first emperor of Japan was Emperor Jimmu, a lineal descendant of the goddess Amaterasu. This genealogy was used to justify the rule of the Imperial house.
[edit] Korea
According to myth, a tiger and a bear living in a cave prayed to the god of the sky, Hwanin, to become human. He ordered them to remain out of sunlight for 100 days and to eat only 20 cloves of garlic and mugwort. The tiger left, but the bear was transformed into a woman; now alone, she prayed for a companion, and Hwanin took her for his own wife. Their child, Dangun, became the first king of Korea, by tradition on October 3, 2333 BC.
The "founding myth" was revived several times in history to encourage Korean nationalism, and is taught in South Korean schools as a lesson of reverence, patience, and perseverance. The name Dangun itself is used colloquially to express satisfaction with excellence or rightness.
[edit] North Korea
The Democratic People's Republic of Korea is perhaps the most thoroughly propagandized populace in the modern world, with the national identity intrinsically tied to the extensive personality cults of President Kim Jong-il and his father, the "Great Leader" Kim Il-sung. Many elements of their lives and of national history have been rewritten to exalt them and to conform to and support the ideology of juche.
Kim Il-sung is commemorated as a leading commander of the independence movement against Japan. Over the years, his early life was attributed greater and greater hardship, and his abilities increased commensurately to the nearly supernatural. He is for instance said to have participated in 100,000 battles against the Japanese in 15 years. His ancestors were refashioned into heroic revolutionary fighters.
Since at least 1982 Kim Jong-il is said to have been born in an army camp on the sacred Baitou Mountain, amidst thunderstorms and rainbows (even though it was winter). It links him to the guerrilla movement against the Japanese occupation and provides a spiritual foundation for his rule. He is then said to have graduated from the elite Namsan School in Pyongyang, and to have served as a construction and factory worker—so inspirationally in the latter to have sparked a mass movement, the "Model Machine Movement of Loyalty for Emulating Lathe No. 26." [2]
[edit] Mexico
The appearance of Our Lady of Guadalupe to the Aztec convert Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin underpins Roman Catholicism in Mexico and to some extent all of Latin America. That the Virgin Mary appeared to a native, and the image on his apron represents her as olive-skinned, represents the accessibility of the Church to the indigenous peoples. Various indigenous advocates in Mexico have adopted the Lady as a symbol.
[edit] Norway
The earliest national myth is probably the founding of the Kingdom of Norway by king Harald Fairhair in the middle ages; shortly thereafter, the christianisation of Norway by king Olav Tryggvason became another important historical event. In modern times, the declaration of independence from Denmark and the Constitution of Norway became important symbols of nationalism; May 17, Constitution day, is still a major event in Norway and for Norwegians abroad.
In popular culture, Norwegians usually pride themselves with living in "the best country in the world" (a claim backed in recent years by the United Nations's Human Development Index), and with their diversity of dialects in Norwegian language (TV and radio frequently use local dialects in national shows, encouraging people to use dialects and creating an environment where dialects are so often heard and therefor quickly learned by non-"native" speakers).
[edit] Philippines
There are many versions of the founding of The Philippine Islands. One is the idea of an almighty creator named Bathala. He was said to be the Filipino version of [God], although the Philippines is a majorly Christian country. Another myth is about a disputing giant couple where they settled issues by shouting at each other and throwing stones at each other, thus forming the 7,000+ islands of the Philippines.
[edit] Portugal
There are quite a few myths surrounding the first recognized king of Portugal Afonso Henriques, and his followers. Amongst them are the stories concerning Dom Egas Moniz's willingness to sacrifice himself and his family to the king of León because of Afonso's rebellion; Martim Moniz's sacrifice during the conquest of Lisbon from the Moors, and Afonso's own fights with his mother, Dona Teresa, self-styled queen of Portugal.
Os Lusíadas an epic poem by Luís de Camões is often regarded as Portugal's "national epic". In it, Camões presents the Portuguese people as descendants from Lusus, companion of Dionysus and mythical founder of Lusitania, and loosely describes the country's history until the mid 16th century, focussing mainly on Portuguese discoveries from the 15th to the 17th centuries. Camões goes further, by suggesting that the Portuguese nation might be the offspring of Odysseus (mythical founder of Lisbon, or Olissipo).
[edit] Scotland
According to legend, the Scots are descended from an Egyptian princess named Scota.
Some kings of Scotland have achieved legendary status. Cináed I (Kenneth Mac Alpine), who is thought of as the first true king of Scotland, uniting the Pictish kingdoms and Goidelic Dál Riata. Robert I (Robert the Bruce), notable in the traditional story of his being inspired by a spider while hiding in a cave before fighting a guerrilla war against English occupation.
[edit] Serbia
The 1389 Battle of Kosovo was a defining event in Serbian history and identity, although the historical record is sparse. A Serbian-led Christian army was defeated by the Ottoman Empire through treachery, but not before Miloš Obilić assassinated the sultan Murad I, sacrificing himself to oppose tyranny and defend his people.
[edit] Singapore
The merlion, a logo invented by the Singapore Tourism Board in 1964, is often romanticized in tourism literature as being an ancient Malayan symbol, despite its recent design.
[edit] Sweden
Eric's Chronicle, describing Swedish history from mid-13th century to AD 1319, is the oldest narrative document in Sweden. The historical accuracy is doubtful, but that did not bother academics from honouring the story until recently. King Gustav Vasa had a highly romanticized autobiography written, called Gustav Vasas öden och äventyr i Dalarna ("Gustav Vasa's fortunes and adventures in Dalarna"), which is still today taught in Swedish schools, and annually re-enacted in Vasaloppet, Sweden's classical cross-country ski race. The Swedish Empire during the 17th century, with events like the Battle of Lützen (1632) and the March across the Belts is renowned by Swedish people, with literary works such as Fältskärns berättelser ("The Field Surgeon's Story"). During the 20th century, more realistic historical novels became popular, most notably Vilhelm Moberg's Emigrants series.
[edit] Switzerland
A highly celebrated national myth is that of William Tell, the legendary Swiss hero who defied the Austrians, leading to rebellion and independence for Switzerland. The historical authenticity of a person named Tell has been disputed. The related Rütli-Schwur describes the legendary oath that marks the beginning of the Old Swiss Confederacy.
[edit] United States
The travails of the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower and during their first years in America, are often told to underscore quintessential American values such as religious freedom (the voyagers seen as fleeing religious persecution) and industriousness (required to survive the harsh New England winter), and individual pursuit of happiness. In actuality, the Puritans were outnumbered by unaffiliated settlers and servants, and the Plymouth Colony settlers were seeking separation from all other cultures (separatism), not exactly individual happiness.
Stories of Benjamin Franklin and the tolerant Colony of Pennsylvania are other national myths illustrating that America was a land of religious freedom, opportunity and pursuit of happiness.
Pocahontas is said to have saved the life of John Smith from her father Powhatan, and later adopted European customs. Nearly all accounts, however—including Smith's—are at best highly romanticized.
The American Revolution is the source of many national myths, such as the legendary ride of Paul Revere, or Nathan Hale's purported last words ("...My only regret is that I have but one life to lose for my country"). These legends illustrate the virtues of bravery and vigilance, considered essential to the United States.
The person of George Washington is particularly idealized as the "father of the country." Parson Weems invented some of the tales about Washington's life, including the story in which a young Washington admits to cutting down a cherry tree with a hatchet, often repeated to children to underscore the virtue of truthfulness.
The numerous and complex causes of the American Civil War are romantically simplified as either a war to "free the slaves" or (chiefly in the South) to defend agrarian tradition and independence against homogenizing industrial society. Pickett's Charge during the Battle of Gettysburg is sometimes given as the moment the Confederacy had lost the war, though the CSA survived for almost two additional years. Similarly, Robert E. Lee and Abraham Lincoln are often elevated to a demi-god status similar to that of the founding fathers.
The settlement of the American West has also been a source of many national myths, which glorify the frontier virtues of rugged individualism and self-reliance. After the closing of the frontier, stories by Horatio Alger and others depicted diligence, honesty and pluck as the chief qualities required for upward social mobility in the industrial age—not to mention ingraining the view of the nation as a true meritocracy. A quote in the 1962 movie The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance is made about the use of Wild West stories in the US: "This is the west, sir. When the legend becomes fact, print the legend."
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ The Cult of the Spanish Civil War in East Germany (abstract) - Krammer, Arnold, Texas A&M University. Accessed 2008-05-14.)
- ^ en-history-zosa
- Abizadeh, Arash. 2004. "Historical Truth, National Myths, and Liberal Democracy." The Journal of Political Philosophy 12.3: 291-313.
- Miller, David. 1995. On Nationality. Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-828047-5.
- Renan, Ernest. 1882. "Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?"
