Mushroom hunting

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Mushroom picking - Franciszek Kostrzewski
Mushroom picking - Franciszek Kostrzewski

Mushroom hunting, mushrooming, mushroom picking and similar terms describe the activity of gathering mushrooms in the wild, typically for eating. This is popular in most of Europe, including the Nordic, Baltic and Slavic countries and the Mediterranean Basin[citation needed], as well as in the north western United States.

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[edit] Identifying mushrooms

Morphological characteristics of the caps of mushroom, such as those illustrated in the above chart, are essential for correct mushroom identification.
Morphological characteristics of the caps of mushroom, such as those illustrated in the above chart, are essential for correct mushroom identification.
Basketful of porcini (Boletus edulis)
Basketful of porcini (Boletus edulis)

A large number of mushrooms species are favored for eating by mushroom hunters. The king bolete is a popular delicacy. Sulphur shelf (also known as Chicken Mushroom or Chicken of the Woods) is often gathered because it occurs in bulk, recurs year after year, is easily identified, and has a wide variety of culinary uses. Chanterelles, morels, Shaggy Manes (in genus Coprinus), and Puffballs are among the most popular types of mushrooms to gather, most of these being relatively hard to misidentify by anyone with practice. Only experts, however, collect from dangerous groups, such as Amanita, which include some of the most toxic mushrooms in existence.

Naturally, there are abundant field guides on mushrooms available, but especially in the Slavic countries the ability to identify and prepare edible mushrooms is usually passed down through generations.

Identification is not the only element of mushroom hunting that takes practice — knowing where to search does as well. Most mushroom species require very specific conditions -- some will only grow at the base of a certain type of tree, for example. Finding a desired species that is known to grow in a certain region can be a challenge.

[edit] Safety issues

For more details on this topic, see Mushroom poisoning.

Some mushrooms are deadly or extremely hazardous when consumed; see List of deadly fungi. Others, while not deadly, can nevertheless cause permanent organ damage. In the literature, people are generally strongly advised:

  • Only to gather mushrooms which they have themselves identified positively.
  • To identify the mushrooms a second time during preparation, and to prepare them properly (only very few species can be eaten raw!). It is considered unwise for collectors to combine the mushrooms they have collected.
  • To inform oneself about deadly mushrooms, and the deadly look-alikes of edible ones. The second varies across world regions, so it is important to take into account regional variation.
  • Not to gather mushrooms that are difficult to identify, unless one has an expert knowledge. This applies especially to the mushrooms of the genus Amanita or Cortinarius and "little brown mushrooms".
  • Only to consume a small amount of the mushroom the first time one tries a certain species. People react differently to different mushrooms, and all mushroom species can cause adverse reaction in a few individuals, even the common champignon.[1]

Literature and picking guides also frequently offer reminders to always cut a mushroom with a blade when gathering, rather than pulling it out, and to never kick or otherwise destroy mushrooms one does not want, thus preserving the forest ecosystem.

[edit] "Little brown mushrooms"

A "little brown mushroom" or LBM refers to any of a large number of small, dull-coloured agaric species, with few macromorphological characters that readily distinguish one species from another.[2] As a result, LBMs typically range from difficult to impossible for mushroom hunters to identify. Experienced mushroomers may discern more subtle identifying traits that will help narrow the mushroom down to a particular genus or group of species, but exact identification of LBMs often requires close examination of microscopic characteristics plus a certain degree of familiarity or specialization in that particular group.

For mycologists, LBMs are the equivalent of LGBs ("little grey birds") and DYCs ("damn yellow composites") that are the bane of ornithologists and botanists, respectively.

The acronym BWM, "big white mushroom" is also sometimes used to describe groups of difficult to identify larger and paler agarics, many of which are in the genus Clitocybe.

[edit] Psychotropics

For more details on this topic, see Psilocybin mushrooms.

The Amanita muscaria's psychotropic properties have been traditionally used by shamans in Siberia in their rituals, however its use for such purposes today is very rare, despite the mushroom's abundance. Instead, the Psilocybe semilanceata, being the only psilocybin-containing mushroom common in Slavic countries, is sought after for its hallucinogenic properties, the latter being more desirable with fewer side effects than those of A. muscaria. The use of P. semilanceata is however significantly hindered by its small size, requiring larger quantities and being hard to spot.

  • Amanita muscaria (Мухомор Красный [Mukhomor Krasniy] - Red Fly-Killer; Fly Agaric, Toadstool)
  • Psilocybe semilanceata (Псилоциба Сосочковидная [Psilotsiba Sosochkovidnaya] - Nipple-Like Psylocybe; Liberty Cap)

[edit] Regional importance

  • In the United States mushroom picking is particularly popular from the San Francisco Bay Area northward along the Pacific Coast, in northern California, Oregon and Washington.
  • Due to global warming, British enthusiasts today enjoy an extended average picking season of 75 days compared to just 33 in the 1950s[3].
  • In Slavic countries, such as Russia, Poland, Ukraine, Slovakia and the Czech Republic, mushroom picking is a common family activity. After a heavy rain during mushroom season whole families often venture into the nearest forest, picking bucketfuls of mushrooms, which are cooked and eaten for dinner upon return or alternatively dried or marinated for later consumption.

[edit] Radiation

An important issue concerning mushroom picking in Europe is the nuclear fallout from the Chernobyl disaster. It turned out that, due to wide spread of their mycelium, mushrooms tend to accumulate more radioactive caesium-137 than the surroundings. Special state agencies (in Belarus it is Bellesrad) monitor and analyze the degrees of radionuclide accumulation in various wild species of plants and animals. In particular Bellesrad claims that свинушка (Paxillus involutus), масленок (Boletus luteus), моховик, горькушка are the worst ones in this respect. The safest one turns out to be Опёнок Осенний (Armillaria). See also: Russian joke.

This is not only an issue in Belarus, Ukraine and Russia; the fallout also reached western Europe, and until recently the German government officially encouraged people not to gather certain mushrooms.

[edit] Guidelines for mushroom picking

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[edit] Safety rules

A variety of safety rules for mushroom hunting exist. Listed here are some of the most common in order of importance, from greatest to least:

  1. Never consume a mushroom for which a positive identification (to species, in most cases, though there are also several 'safe' genera) has not been made (see mushroom poisoning).
  2. Never try to convince anyone else to eat a mushroom that you have identified.
  3. Simplistic rules-of-thumb such as: "it's edible if it discolors when cut", or "if it doesn't stain a silver spoon" are often dangerously inaccurate. Species identification is a must.
  4. Characters to consider in the identification process should include size (though this does vary considerably among individual specimens of a given species), color, gill connectivity (i.e. are the gills attached to the stalk or free from it), habitat, a longitudinal section, bruising color, odor, spore print color, and any other details in the description of the target mushroom.
  5. In no case should you eat a mushroom when something about the mushroom contradicts available information about what one suspects the mushroom is.
  6. Be certain of the authoritativeness of any resources (books, etc.) used for identification.
  7. Be able to tell what distinguishes this mushroom from its closest dangerous 'look-alike' species.
  8. Learn what the Death Cap, Destroying angel, Galerina species, small Lepiota species and the Deadly Webcap and some of their relatives look like in all stages of their development; those kinds cause the majority of deadly poisonings. Other species can cause permanent kidney failure or make you severely ill but do not often kill.
  9. Until you can be considered an expert, stay away from all difficult to identify groups, such as Amanita, Cortinarius, and "little brown mushrooms".
  10. Always identify each specimen during preparation. Deaths due to an inexperienced collector gathering a button-stage Amanita along with edible mushrooms have occurred, or when a group of collectors unwisely combines their mushrooms.
  11. Novices should start with more easily identifiable and less dangerous groups.
  12. Be careful to use information relevant to your area. Some mushrooms that are safe in Europe or southeast Asia, for example, have deadly lookalikes in North America.
  13. Only consume a small amount of the mushroom the first time. Like every other food that you taste for the first time, certain types of popular edible mushrooms, such as sulphur shelf, can cause an "allergic" reaction. Some species, such as Paxillus involutus, can be eaten several times without ill effect and then cause severe distress when consumed again. Your first taste should be just a taste (to see if you actually care for it), and your second should be a modest serving. Space tastings far apart - poisoning from the highly deadly destroying angel doesn't even produce symptoms until 6 to 24 hours after consumption and can take over a week to kill its victim. In some cases it is necessary to taste a tiny bit of a raw specimen as part of the identification process; in such cases it is important to promptly spit out the sample.
  14. Do not mix known edibles with other species while gathering. Keep them in separate containers to avoid confusion.
  15. Do not allow young children to gather mushrooms for consumption. If they hunt with you, keep any mushrooms they find separate and identify them yourself. As always, if in doubt, throw it out.
  16. Be aware of pollution; some mushrooms heavily concentrate pollutants such inorganic compounds that are used in pesticides and herbicides, heavy metals, etc. Avoid areas near crop fields, utility rights-of-way, roadsides, railroads, golf course, chemically treated lawns, etc. In Europe there is also significant evidence for concentration by mushrooms of radioactive isotopes [1][2]. More specifically, radioactive fallout spreads unevenly and can be very concentrated in certain areas, this even at great distances from the source of the pollution (see Chernobyl disaster effects).
  17. If you do eat your mushrooms, unless there is absolutely no doubt about its identification, remember to keep a piece or even better a mushroom for each specimen you have picked. If you have misidentified the fungus and are poisoned by it, this can help expert mycologists make a proper identification and diagnosis.
  18. Only consume specimens that are freshly picked (or properly preserved) and not too old. Once an edible mushroom loses its freshness, bacterial colonies will form and stomach upsets or worse symptoms can be expected if such specimens are ingested.

[edit] Poisonous mushrooms commonly confused for edible ones

See also: List of deadly fungi

Any good mushroom guidebook will call attention to similarities between species, especially if an edible species is similar to or commonly confused with one that is potentially harmful.

Examples:

  1. False chanterelles (Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca) can look like real chanterelles (Cantharellus cibarius) to the inexperienced eye. The latter do not have sharp gills, but rather blunt veins on the underside. A mistake here would, however, not be very serious, since false chanterelles are considered edible, just not tasty. Some have reported mild symptoms from consuming them, though[4]. The Jack O'Lantern Mushroom, on the other hand, is often mistaken for a chanterelle, and it is potently toxic.
  2. True morels are distinguished from false morels (Gyromitra spp. and Verpa spp.). The impostors have caps attached at the top of the stalk, while true morels have a honeycombed cap and a single, continuous hollow chamber within.
  3. Immature Chlorophyllum molybdites can be confused with edible Agaricus mushrooms.
  4. Immature puffballs are generally edible, but care must be taken to avoid species such as Scleroderma citrinum and immature Amanitas. These can be identified by cutting a puffball in half and looking for a dark reticulated gleba or the articulated, nonhomogenous structures of a gilled mushroom, respectively.
  5. Conocybe filaris, and some Galerina species can look like, and grow next to, Psilocybe which is not deadly but contains the alkaloids psilocybin and psilocin, hence it is often sought for illegal use as a recreational psychedelic drug.

[edit] Eating poisonous species

There are treatments to reduce or eliminate the toxicity of certain (but not all) poisonous species to the point where they may be edible.[3] For instance, false morels are deadly poisonous when eaten raw or incorrectly prepared, but their toxins can be reduced by a proper method of parboiling. Prepared in this way, this mushroom is widely used and considered a delicacy in the Scandinavian countries, although recent research suggests that there may still be long-term health consequences from eating it[5].

[edit] Commonly gathered mushrooms

The commonly gathered species, grouped by their order taxa, are as follows:

NOTE: Since this page is also intended to serve as a reference for interpreting Russian mycology-related information, mushroom species mentioned in each group are listed at the end of the paragraph using the following convention:

  • Latin name (Russian name [transliteration of Russian name] - literal translation of name; common English names, if any).

[edit] Agaricaceae

While the family of Amanitas should be approached with extreme caution, as it contains the lethal Amanita phalloides and Amanita virosa, those confident in their skills often pick the Amanita rubescens, which is highly prized in Europe and to a much lesser extent in Russia, accounted by some not to superior taste, but to its relation to the Amanita caesarea, which is not found in Russia, but was considered a delicacy worthy of the emperor in Ancient Rome.

  • Amanita phalloides (Бледная Поганка [Blednaya Poganka] - Pale Toadstool; The Death Cap)
  • Amanita virosa (Мухомор Вонючий [Mukhomor Vonyuchiy] - Stinky Fly-Killer; The Destroying Angel)
  • Amanita rubescens (Мухомор Серо-Розовый [Mukhomor Sero-Rozoviy] - Grey-Pink Fly-Killer; European blusher)
  • Amanita caesarea (Цезарский Гриб [Tsezarskiy Grib] - Caesar's Mushroom)
  • Coprinus comatus is a unique mushroom that mushroom decomposes into ink, and hence must be prepared soon after picking and only young specimens should be collected. While being a general mushroom hunting guideline, the avoidance of specimens growing in areas with high pollution is especially important with this family, as it is a very effective pollutant absorber.

[edit] Boletaceae

This order is often viewed as the order of "noble" mushrooms, containing few poisonous species, identifiable with relative ease, and having superior palatability. The most notable species is the Boletus edulis, the "mushroom king", a beautiful, almost legendary, relatively rare mushroom, edible in almost any (even raw) form, and commonly considered to be the best-tasting mushroom. Note: do not confuse the name transliteration "white mushroom" with Champignons, often known in English as "white mushrooms".

  • Boletus edulis (Белый Гриб [Beliy Grib] - White Mushroom; Borowik szlachetny, Porcini, King Bolete, Cep, Steinpilz)

The Leccinum family includes two well-known mushroom species named after the trees they can usually be found next to. The Leccinum aurantiacum (as well as the L. versipelle), found under aspen trees, and the Leccinum scabrum (as well as the L. holopus), found under birch trees. The secondary mentioned species, are significantly different in cap colour only. Both types are very sought after, being highly palatable and beautiful, while more common than the B. edulis.

  • Leccinum aurantiacum (Подосиновик Красный [Podosinovik Krasniy] - Red Under-Aspen; Red-capped scaber stalk)
  • Leccinum scabrum (Подберёзовик Обыкновенный [Podberyozovik Obiknovenniy] - Common Under-Birch; Birch bolete)

The Suillus family, characterised by its slimy cap, is another prized mushroom, the Suillus luteus and Suillus granulatus being its most common varieties, and while abundant in some parts of Eurasia, is a rare occurrence in others. It is easy to identify and very palatable.

  • Suillus (Маслёнок [Maslyonok] - Buttery Mushroom; The Slippery Jack, Butter Mushroom)

The Xerocomus genus is generally considered a less desirable (though mostly edible) mushroom group, due to common abundant mould growth on their caps, which can make them poisonous. The Xerocomus badius, however is an exception, being moderately sought after, especially in Europe. Note that some scientific classifications now consider species in the Xerocomus genus as members of Boletus.

  • Xerocomus (Моховик [Mokhovik] - Moss Mushroom; Mossiness Mushroom)
  • Xerocomus badius (Польский Гриб [Polskiy Grib] - Polish Mushroom)

[edit] Cantharellaceae

The Cantharellus cibarius, a common and popular mushroom, especially in Europe, is a moderately palatable and unique mushroom. It is very rarely infested by worms or larvae, has a unique appearance, and when rotting, the decomposed parts are easily distinguishable and separable from those that are edible.

  • Cantharellus cibarius (Лисичка Обыкновенная [Lisichka Obiknovennaya] - Common Little-Fox; Chanterelle, Yellow Chanterelle)

[edit] Helvellaceae

The Gyromitra esculenta is considered poisonous, but can be consumed if dried and stored for over a year, according to Slavic literature, and can be used to supplement or replace morel (see Morchellaceae below) mushrooms, while Western literature claims that even the fumes of the mushroom are dangerous. It is similar to morels both in appearance and palatability.

  • Gyromitra esculenta (Строчок Обыкновенный [Strochok Obiknovenniy] - No Translation; False Morel)

[edit] Lepiotaceae

The Macrolepiota genus, usually the Macrolepiota procera, and, to a lesser extent, the M. rhacodes are highly regarded, especially in Europe, being very palatable and very large, with specimens of M. procera as high as 1 metre being reported.

  • Macrolepiota procera (Зонтик Пёстрый [Zontik Pyostriy] - Colourful Umbrella; The Parasol Mushroom)

[edit] Morchellaceae

The Morel, Morchella esculenta is highly prized in Western Europe, India and North America. It is significantly less prized in Slavic countries where, like the Gyromitra esculenta, is considered marginally edible with mediocre palatability. Boiling the mushroom and discarding the water is often recommended.

  • Morchella esculenta (Сморчок Обыкновенный [Smorchok Obiknovenniy] - Common Shrunken Mushroom; Morel, Yellow morel)

[edit] Russulaceae

Members of the genus Lactarius, as the name suggests, lactate a milky liquid when wounded and are often scoffed upon by Western literature. The Lactarius deliciosus is however regarded as one of the most palatable mushrooms in Slavic culture, comparable to the Boletus edulis. Also considered as similarly palatable, especially in Siberia, is the species Lactarius resimus and its black variety Lactarius necator. Thermal treatment may however be necessary in some cases. Slightly less appealing due to its bitter taste is the Lactarius pubescens.

  • Lactarius deliciosus (Рыжик [Rizhik] - Redcap; Saffron Milk-Cap)
  • Lactarius resimus (Груздь Настоящий [Gruzd Nastoyashiy] - True Milk-Cap; Pepper Cap)
  • Lactarius necator (Груздь Чёрный [Gruzd Chyorniy] - Black Milk-Cap; Black Pepper Cap)
  • Lactarius pubescens (Волнушка Белая [Volnushka Belaya] - White Wavy Mushroom; Wooly Milk-Cap)

There is a Russian proverb: "If you call yourself gruzd, then get into the basket", which encourages people who boast about themselves too much to actually do some work. Gruzd is presented as a very valuable mushroom.

The Russula family includes over 750 species and is one of the most common and abundant mushrooms in Eurasia. Their cap colours include red, brown, yellow, blue and green and can be easily spotted. The Russula vesca species, one of the many red-capped varieties, is one of the most common, is reasonably palatable and can be eaten raw. Due to their abundance they are however often regarded as an inferior mushroom for hunting. Note that mushrooms should not be eaten raw without proper cleaning and removal of all insects and decay.

  • Russula vesca (Сыроежка Пищевая (Siroyezhka Pischevaya) - Raw-Edible Mushroom; Russula)

[edit] Tricholomataceae

The genus Armillaria, with the popular species A. gallica and A. mellea, being so similar that they are rarely differentiated, are palatable, highly abundant mushrooms. Generally found on decaying tree stumps, they grow in very large quantities and are easy to spot and identify, arguably reducing the fun and challenge in mushroom hunting.

  • Armillaria (Опёнок Осенний [Opyonok Osenniy] - Autumn Stump-Grower; The Honey Mushroom, Shoestring Rot)

The Pleurotus ostreatus is the most commonly picked tree-dwelling mushroom and is often also artificially cultivated for sale in grocery stores. This sturdy mushroom can be quite palatable when young. Growing these mushrooms at home can be a profitable enterprise and some Russians engage in the activity.

  • Pleurotus ostreatus (Вешенка Устричная [Veshenka Ustrichnaya] - Oyster-Like Hanging Mushroom; The Oyster Mushroom)

[edit] References

  1. ^ Marco HK Ho, David J Hill (2006) White button mushroom food hypersensitivity in a child Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health 42 (9) , 555–556
  2. ^ IMA Glossary: LBM
  3. ^ Gange, A.C., E.G. Gange, T.H. Sparks & L. Boddy. (2007) "Rapid and recent changes in fungal fruiting patterns" Science 317: 71.
  4. ^ Arora, David. Mushrooms Demystified. Ten Speed Press, 1986
  5. ^ Michael W. Beug, Marilyn Shaw, and Kenneth W. Cochran. Thirty plus Years of Mushroom Poisoning: Summary of the Approximately 2,000 Reports in the NAMA Case Registry. From summary at http://www.blogcharm.com/mycos/

[edit] Further reading

[edit] See also

[edit] External links