Mountaintop removal mining

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Mountaintop removal site.
Mountaintop removal site.

Mountaintop removal mining (MTR), often referred to in the industry as mountaintop mining/valley fills (MTM/VF), is a form of surface mining that involves an extreme topographic change to the summit or summit ridge of a mountain. It is most closely associated with coal mining in the Appalachian Mountains, located in the eastern United States. The process involves using explosives to remove up to 1,000 vertical feet of rock to get to the coal seams. The resulting debris is often scraped into the adjacent river valleys in what is called a valley fill.[1][2][3]

Because of the physically destructive nature of the practice, MTR is controversial, and is protested by environmentalists, local residents, and others. Controversy over the practice stems from both the extreme topographical and ecological changes that the mining site undergoes, as well as from the storage of waste material generated from the mining and processing of the coal; proponents of MTR point to its efficiency, its ability to provide jobs, and the resulting increase of flat land in areas where there is often little.

Contents

[edit] History

Increased demand for coal in the United States, sparked by the 1973 and 1979 petroleum crises, created incentives for a more economical form of coal mining than the traditional underground mining methods that involving hundreds of workers, triggering the first widespread use of MTR. The mining method's prevalence expanded further in the 1990s to retrieve relatively low-sulfur coal, a cleaner burning form, which became desirable as a result of amendments to the U.S. Clean Air Act that tightened emissions limits on high-sulfur coal processing.[4] With an increasing call for energy independence in the U.S., as well as a growing call for Coal-To-Liquids and "clean coal technologies", MTR has continued to expand into the 2000s.

[edit] Occurrence

MTR in the United States is most often associated with the extraction of coal in the Appalachian Mountains, where the EPA estimates that 2,200 square miles (5,700 km²) of Appalachian forests will be cleared for MTR sites by the year 2012.[5] It occurs most commonly in West Virginia and Eastern Kentucky, the top two coal producing states in Appalachia, with each state using approximately 1000 metric tons of explosives per day for the purposes of surface mining.[6] However, the technique is being used increasingly in central Tennessee and southwest Virginia.[7] At current rates, MTR in the U.S. will mine over 1.4 million acres (5,700 km²) by 2010,[8] an amount of land area that exceeds that of the state of Delaware.

[edit] Process

Dragline at the Centralia coal mine in Washington.
Dragline at the Centralia coal mine in Washington.

As no existing vegetation survives MTR, the targeted land is clear-cut and either sold for lumber[4] or burned[citation needed]. Ideally, the topsoil is removed and set aside for later reclamation.[4] Miners then use explosives to blast away the overburden, the rock and subsoil that lies above a coal seam, to expose the coal. The overburden is pushed into a nearby valley or hollow, creating a pile below called valley fill[citation needed]. A dragline excavator removes the coal, where it is transported to a processing plant and washed. Millions of gallons of waste from coal processing, called sludge or slurry, are often stored nearby in open pools held back by earthen dams. Once coal removal is completed, the mining operators replace the topsoil (or a topsoil substitute) on the stripped site and seed it for revegetation.

Because coal usually exists in multiple geologically stratified seams, miners can often repeat the blasting process to mine over a dozen seams on a single mountain, increasing the mine depth each time. This can result in vertical descension of hundreds of extra feet into the earth.[4]

[edit] Economics

Just over half of the electricity generated in the United States is produced by coal-fired power plants. MTR accounted for less than 5% of U.S. coal production as of 2001.[8] In some regions, however, the percentage is higher, for example MTR provided 30% of the coal mined in West Virginia in 2006.[9]

Historically in the U.S. the prevalent method of coal acquisition was underground mining which is very labor-intensive. In MTR, through the use of explosives and large machinery, more than two and a half times as much coal can be extracted per worker per hour than in traditional underground mines,[10] and thus greatly reducing the need for workers. The industry lost approximately 10,000 jobs from 1990 to 1997, as MTR and other more mechanized mining methods became more widely used.[11] In addition, because MTR sites employ fewer miners per amount extracted, labor unions have less representation, and the United Mine Workers of America have charged that anti-union practices are often associated with MTR.[citation needed] They have also called for additional legal measures to protect communities from the degradation and destruction that results from nearby blasting.[12] The coal industry asserts that surface mining techniques, such as mountaintop removal, are safer for miners than sending miners underground.[13]

Proponents argue that in certain geologic areas, MTR and similar forms of surface mining allow easier access to coal than traditional underground mining, and that it is the most cost-effective method of extracting coal.[citation needed] However, the counties that host MTR are often the poorest in Appalachia. For instance, in McDowell County, West Virginia, which produces the most coal in the state, over 37% of residents live below the poverty line.[14] In Kentucky, counties with coal mining have economies no better than adjoining counties where no mining occurs.[15]

[edit] Legislation in the United States

In the United States, MTR is allowed by section 515(c)(1) of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA). Although most coal mining sites must be reclaimed to the land's pre-mining contour and use, regulatory agencies can issue waivers to allow MTR.[16] In such cases, SMCRA dictates that reclamation must create "a level plateau or a gently rolling contour with no highwalls remaining."[17]

Permits must be obtained to deposit valley fill into streams. On four occasions, federal courts have ruled that the US Army Corps of Engineers violated the Clean Water Act by issuing permits.[5][18] Massey Energy Company is currently appealing a 2007 ruling, but has been allowed to continue mining in the meantime because "most of the substantial harm has already occurred," according to the judge.[5]

The Bush administration appealed one of these rulings in 2001 because the Act had not explicitly defined "fill material" that could legally be placed in a waterway. The EPA and Army Corps of Engineers changed a rule to include mining debris in the definition of fill material, and the ruling was overturned.[19][5] However, if passed, the Clean Water Protection Act (H.R.2169), a bill in the House of Representatives, would revert this change by specifying that coal mining waste does not constitute fill material,[20] in effect disallowing valley fills.

A federal judge has also ruled that using settling ponds to remove mining waste from streams violates the Clean Water Act. He also declared that the Army Corps of Engineers has no authority to issue permits allowing discharge of pollutants into such in-stream settling ponds, which are often built just below valley fills.[21]

Additionally, a September 2007 survey conducted by the Civil Society Institute found that 65% of Americans oppose the Bush Administration's proposal "to ease environmental regulations to permit wider use of 'mountain top removal' coal mining in the U.S." The study also found that 74% of Americans are opposed to the expansion of MTR coal mining in general, and that 90% of Americans agree that more mining should be permitted only after the United States government has assessed its impacts on safety and the environment.[22]

On 15 January 2008, the environmental advocacy group Center for Biological Diversity petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service to end a policy that waives detailed federal Endangered Species Act reviews for new mining permits. The current policy states that MTR can never damage endangered species or their habitat as long as mining operators comply with federal surface mining law, despite the complexities of species and ecosystems. Since 1996, this policy has exempted many strip mines from being subject to permit-specific reviews of impact on individual endangered species.[23]

On May 25 2008 North Carolina State Representative Pricey Harrison introduced legislation to ban the use of mountaintop removal coal from North Carolina coal fired power plants. This proposed legislation is the first of its kind in the United States.[citation needed]

[edit] Criticism

Critics contend that MTR is a destructive and unsustainable practice that benefits a small number of corporations at the expense of local communities and the environment. Though the main issue has been over the physical alteration of the landscape, opponents to the practice have also criticized MTR for the damage done to the environment by massive transport trucks, and the environmental damage done by the burning of coal for power.

Advocates of MTR claim that once the areas are reclaimed as mandated by law, the area provides flat land suitable for many uses in a region where flat land is at a premium. They also maintain that the new growth on reclaimed mountaintop mined areas is better suited to support populations of game animals.[24]

Mountaintop removal coal mining at Kayford Mountain, West Virginia.
Mountaintop removal coal mining at Kayford Mountain, West Virginia.

Blasting at MTR sites also expels coal dust and fly-rock into the air, which can disturb or settle onto private property nearby. This dust contains sulfur compounds, which corrodes structures and is a health hazard.[25]

In 2007, a feature documentary titled "Mountain Top Removal" was completed by Haw River Films. The film features Mountain Justice Summer activists, coal field residents, and coal industry officials. Included in the film are US President George W. Bush and West Virginia Governor Joe Manchin, among others. On April 18 2008 the film received the Reel Current award selected and presented by the Honorable Al Gore at the Nashville Film Festival.

A book titled Coal River by Michael Shnayerson, released in January 2008, accuses the industry of circumventing public hearings by dividing large MTR projects into smaller sections. Under the practice, mining officials can utilize a legal loophole and obtain permits (Nationwide Permit 21) that undergo a more relaxed review than those required for large projects.[26] Since Nationwide Permit 21 is intended for small projects that "cause minimal adverse environmental effects," citizens typically only discover the large-scale mining after mountaintop removal has already begun. The Clean Water Act prohibits this practice, but the Army Corps of Engineers has continued to allow it.[27] The Corps has said that its allowance of the procedure "strengthens protections for mining related permits."

[edit] Biodiversity

An EPA environmental impact statement finds that streams near valley fills from mountaintop removal contain high levels of minerals in the water and decreased aquatic biodiversity.[2] The statement also estimates that 724 miles (1,165 km) of Appalachian streams were buried by valley fills between 1985 to 2001.[2]

Although U.S. mountaintop removal sites by law must be reclaimed after mining is complete, reclamation has traditionally focused on stabilizing rock formations and controlling for erosion, and not on the reforestation of the affected area.[28] Fast-growing, non-native grasses, planted to quickly provide vegetation on a site, compete with tree seedlings, and trees have difficulty establishing root systems in compacted backfill.[2] Consequently, biodiversity suffers in a region of the United States with numerous endemic species.[29] Erosion also increases, which can intensify flooding. In the Eastern United States, the Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative works to promote the use of trees in mining reclamation.[30]

[edit] Sludge ponds

As with other methods of coal mining, processing of the coal mined generates waste slurry (also called coal sludge), which is usually stored in large sludge ponds impounded by an on-site dam. Many coal slurry impoundments in West Virginia exceed 500 million gallons in volume, and can be larger than 7 billion gallons.[31] Such impoundments can be hundreds of feet high and sometimes have close proximity to schools or private residences.[32]

The most controversial sludge dam at present sits 400 yards (400 m) above Marsh Fork Elementary School. On May 31, 2005, 16 people were arrested at Governor Manchin's office for protesting the Governor's refusal to fund the relocation of the school. The leaking[citation needed] sludge pond is permitted to hold 2.8 billion gallons of coal sludge, and is 21 times larger than the pond which killed 125 people in the Buffalo Creek Flood in 1972.[33]

Kentucky's Martin County Sludge Spill occurred after midnight on October 11, 2000, when a coal sludge impoundment broke through into an underground mine below, propelling 306 million gallons of sludge down two tributaries of the Tug Fork River. The spill polluted hundreds of miles of waterways, contaminated the water supply for over 27,000 residents, and killed all aquatic life in Coldwater Fork and Wolf Creek.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Appeals Court Upholds Mountaintop Removal Mining
  2. ^ a b c d U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2005-10-25). Mountaintop Mining/Valley Fills in Appalachia: Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement. Retrieved on August 20, 2006.
  3. ^ Mountaintop Mining and Valley Fills in Appalachia (MTM/VF) - Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement
  4. ^ a b c d Burns, Shirley Stewart (2005). "Bringing Down the Mountains: the Impact of Mountaintop Removal Surface Coal Mining on Southern West Virginia Communities, 1970-2004" (PDF). Ph.D. dissertation. . West Virginia University Retrieved on 2006-12-16.
  5. ^ a b c d "Mining battle marked by peaks and valleys", USA Today, 2007-04-18. 
  6. ^ U.S. Geological Survey report on consumption of explosives.
  7. ^ Where Coal from Mountaintop Removal Is Used. Appalachian Voices. Retrieved on September 18, 2006.
  8. ^ a b Frequently Asked Questions about Mountaintop Removal. Appalachian Voices. Retrieved on April 29, 2007.
  9. ^ J. O. Britton and others, West Virginia, Mining Engineering, May 2007, p.125.
  10. ^ Most Requested Statistics - U.S. Coal Industry. National Mining Association. Retrieved on December 1, 2007.
  11. ^ McFerrin. An Odd Partnership: UMW, Coal Association arm in arm.
  12. ^ Statement of United Mine Workers of America on Mountaintop Removal (2003-07-24).
  13. ^ Banerjee, Neela. "Taking On a Coal Mining Practice as a Matter of Faith", The New York Times, 2006-10-28. Retrieved on 2006-10-28. 
  14. ^ What Are the Economic Consequences of Mountaintop Removal in Appalachia?.
  15. ^ Economic Impact of Mountaintop Removal on Coal Mining Communities.
  16. ^ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Mountaintop Removal/Valley Fill.
  17. ^ Public Law 95-87 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (1977-08-03).
  18. ^ "Key players react cautiously to mountaintop removal decision", The Charleston Gazette, 2002-05-10. 
  19. ^ Lazaroff, Cat. "Appeals Court Upholds Mountaintop Removal Mining", Environment News Service, 2003-02-03. 
  20. ^ Clean Water Protection Act. Library of Congress (2007-05-03). Retrieved on May 9, 2007.
  21. ^ "Judge rules against mountaintop mining", MSNBC News, 2007-06-14. 
  22. ^ Survey: 65 Percent of Americans Oppose Mountaintop Removal
  23. ^ Mining impact on species review sought
  24. ^ J.S. Gardner and P Sainato, Mountaintop mining and sustainable development in Appalachia, Mining Engineering, March 2007, p.48-55.
  25. ^ Jessica Tzerman. "Blast Rites", Grist, 2006-08-03. Retrieved on September 4. 
  26. ^ Wetland Safeguards Eroded by New Nationwide Permits>
  27. ^ 'Coal River' cries a river over the devastation from mining
  28. ^ Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative Forest Reclamation Advisory. Office of Surface Mining and Reclamation. Retrieved on July 11, 2007.
  29. ^ Biology: Plants, Animals, & Habitats - We live in a hot spot of biodiversity. Apalachicola Region Resources on the Web. Retrieved on September 18, 2006.
  30. ^ Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative. Retrieved on September 5, 2006.
  31. ^ Brian Vanneman (2004). Tearing Up Appalachia. Sierra Club. Retrieved on September 4, 2006.
  32. ^ Marsh Fork Elementary, Massey Energy's Shumate Coal Sludge Impoundment and Goals Coal Prep Plant. Retrieved on July 31, 2006.
  33. ^ West Virginia Division of Culture and History -- Buffalo Creek.

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