Mongol invasions of Japan
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| Battle of Bun'ei | |||||||
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 The samurai Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and bombs. Moko Shurai Ekotoba (蒙古襲来絵詞), circa 1293. |
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| Belligerents | |||||||
| Mongol Empire Korea |
Japan | ||||||
| Commanders | |||||||
| Kublai Khan | Hōjō Tokimune | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 23,000 Mongol, Chinese & Korean soldiers 700-800 ships (300 large vessels and 400-500 smaller craft) |
10,000 | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| 16,000 killed before landed or drowning | middle | ||||||
| Battle of Kōan | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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| Belligerents | |||||||
| Mongol Empire Korea |
Japan | ||||||
| Commanders | |||||||
| Kublai Khan | Hōjō Tokimune | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 100,000 Mongol, Chinese soldiers & 40,000 Korean soldiers 4500 ships |
40,000? | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| 120,000 killed before landed or drowning | minimal | ||||||
The Mongol invasions of Japan (元寇 Genkō?) of 1274 and 1281 were major military operations undertaken by Kublai Khan to invade the Japanese islands after conquering Korea. Despite their ultimate failure, the invasion attempts are of macrohistorical importance, setting a limit on Mongol expansion, and ranking as nation-defining events in Japanese history. They are referred to in many works of fiction, and are the earliest events for which the word kamikaze, or "divine wind", is widely used. In addition, with the exception of the Occupation at the end of World War II, these failed invasion attempts are the closest Japan has ever come to being invaded within the last 1500 years.
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[edit] Background
In 1231 the Mongols conquered Korea, and after nearly three decades of war, Korea signed a treaty in favor of the Yuan Dynasty and became a Mongolian dependency. The Mongolian Kublai Khan became Emperor of China in 1260 and established his capital at Beijing in 1264. Japan at the time was ruled by the Shikken (Shogunate Regents) of the Hōjō clan, who had intermarried with and wrested control from the Shogun of the Kamakura Shogunate after his death in 1203. The inner circle of the Hōjō had become so pre-eminent that they no longer consulted even the Hyōjō (評定) (the council of the shogunate of the Shogun), nor the Imperial Court of Kyoto, nor their vassals (gokenin), and made their decisions in their private meetings at their residences (寄合 yoriai).
[edit] Contact
In 1266, the Mongolians dispatched emissaries to Japan, with a letter commanding the Japanese to submit to Mongol rule, or face invasion. A second set of emissaries were sent in 1268, returning empty-handed like the first. Both sets of emissaries met with the Chinzei Bugyō, or Defense Commissioner for the West, who passed on the message to Shikken Hōjō Tokimune, Japan's ruler in Kamakura, but also to the Emperor in Kyoto.
After discussing the letters with his inner circle, there was much debate as to what to do, but Tokimune had his mind made up; he had the emissaries sent back with no answer. They re-sent emissaries time and time again, some through Korean emissaries, and some by Mongol ambassadors in March 7, 1269; Sept 17, 1269; Sept 1271; and May 1272--each time not even being permitted to land in Kyushu. The Imperial Court suggested surrender out of overwhelming fear, but really had no say in the matter since its marginalization after losing the Jokyu War.
The Kamakura shogunate under Tokimune (Bakufu) ordered all those who held fiefs in Kyūshū (the area closest to Korea, and thus most likely to be attacked) to return to their lands, and forces in Kyūshū moved west, further securing the most likely landing points. After acknowledging its impotence, the Imperial Court led great prayer services, and much government business was put off to deal with this crisis.
[edit] First invasion
The Khan was willing to go to war as early as 1268, but found that the Mongol empire did not have the resources to provide him with a sufficient army or navy at that time. He sent a force to Korea in 1273, to act as the advance guard, but they were unable to support themselves off the Korean countryside, and were forced to return to China for supplies. Finally, in 1274, the Mongol fleet set out, with an estimated 15,000 Mongol & Chinese soldiers and 8,000 Korean warriors, in 300 large vessels and 400-500 smaller craft, although figures vary considerably depending on source. They ravaged the islands of Tsushima and Iki, including piercing women's hands and hanging them on their boats. They landed on November 19th in Hakata Bay, a short distance from Dazaifu, the ancient administrative capital of Kyūshū, but really just a small outpost. The following day brought the Battle of Bun'ei (文永の役), also known as the "Battle of Hakata Bay".
The Japanese were inexperienced in managing such a large force (all of North Kyūshū had been mobilized), and the Mongols made significant initial progress. It had been approximately 50 years since the last major combat event in Japan (Go-Toba's adherents in 1221), leaving not a single Japanese general with adequate experience in moving large bodies of troops. In addition, the style of warfare that then was customary within feudal Japan involved man-to-man duels of sorts, even on large battlefields. The Mongols possessed foreign weapons which included superior long-range armaments ("proto-grenades"), and easily had the upper hand in land combat. The Japanese force at Hakata Bay needed time for reinforcements to arrive, with which they would be able to overwhelm the Mongol Invaders. Around nightfall, a severe storm caused the Mongol ship captains to suggest that the land force re-board the sailing vessels in order to avoid the risk of being marooned on Japanese soil. By daybreak, only a few ships had not set out to sea. Those that had met their doom at nature's hand. Different accounts offer casualty reports that suggest 200 Mongol ships were lost. However, Japanese small boats were much swifter and agile than Mongol ships, and the Japanese were able to board the remaining Mongol ships. Mongols without their long-range land weapons and armor once in hand-to-hand combat stood little chance against the samurai.
Meanwhile back in Kamakura, Tokimune was overcome with fear when the invasion finally came, and wanted to defeat cowardice, so he asked Bukko (his Zen master) for advice. Bukko replied he had to sit in meditation to find the source of his cowardice in himself. Tokimune went to Bukko and said: "Finally there is the greatest happening of my life." Bukko asked, "How do you plan to face it?" Tokimune screamed "Katsu!" ("Victory!") as if he wanted to scare all the enemies in front of him. Bukko responded with satisfaction: "It is true that the son of a lion roars as a lion!" Since that time, Tokimune became instrumental in the spreading of Zen Buddhism and Bushido in Japan among the samurai.
[edit] Developments leading to the second invasion
Starting in 1275, the Kamakura shogunate (Bakufu) made increased efforts to defend against the second invasion which they thought was sure to come. In addition to better organizing the samurai of Kyūshū, they ordered the construction of forts and a large stone wall, and other defensive structures at many potential landing points, including Hakata.
After the failed invasion, Kublai Khan was tired of being ignored and not being allowed to land, so five Mongolian emissaries were dispatched in September 1275 and sent to Kyūshū, refusing to leave without a reply. Tokimune responded by having them sent to Kamakura and then beheading them.[1] The graves of those 5 executed Mongol emissaries exist to this day in Kamakura at Tatsunokuchi.[1] Then again on July 29, 1279, 5 more Mongol emissaries were sent in the same manner, and again beheaded, this time in Hakata. Expecting another invasion, on Feb 21, 1280, the Imperial Court ordered all temples and shrines to pray for victory over the Mongol Empire.
[edit] Second invasion
In the spring of 1281, the Mongols' Chinese fleet was delayed by difficulties in provisioning and manning the large number of ships they had. Their Korean fleet set sail, suffered heavy losses at Tsushima, and turned back. In the summer, the combined Korean/Chinese fleet took Iki-shima, and moved on to Kyūshū, landing at a number of separate positions. In a number of individual skirmishes, known collectively as the Battle of Kōan (弘安の役), or the Second Battle of Hakata Bay, the Mongol forces were driven back to their ships. The Japanese army was again heavily outnumbered, but had fortified the coastal line with the wall the Japanese had built, and was easily able to repulse the auxiliaries that were launched against it. The now-famous kamikaze, a massive typhoon, assaulted the shores of Kyūshū for two days straight, and destroyed much of the Mongol fleet.
Furthermore, it is now believed that the destruction of the Mongol fleet was greatly facilitated by an additional factor. Most of the invasion force was composed of hastily-acquired flat-bottomed Chinese riverboats. Such ships (unlike ocean-going ships, which have a curved keel to prevent capsizing) cannot deal with high seas, let alone a massive typhoon.
[edit] Mongol invasions in modern culture
In the Mongol Invasion supplement for the PC game Shogun: Total War, the campaign included postulates an invasion which was not cut short by the typhoons. Age of Empires II also includes missions related to the Mongol Invasion.
[edit] Significance
Besides national boundaries, Zen Buddhism of Hojo Tokimune and his Zen master Bukko had gained credibility, and the first mass followings of Zen teachings among samurai began to flourish. This also marks the first use of the word kamikaze, it is also important to the Japanese belief that they could not be defeated, which remained important to their foreign relations until WWII.
[edit] Resources
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- Sansom, George, A History of Japan to 1334, Stanford University Press, 1958.
- Conlan, Thomas, In Little Need of Divine Intervention, Cornell University Press, 2001 — includes a black-and-white reproduction of the Moko Shurai Ekotoba, as well as translations of relevant Kamakura-era documents and an essay by Prof. Conlan concerning the Invasions (in which he argues that the Japanese were better placed to withstand the Mongols than traditionally given credit for). The essay is available in pdf form at this link.
- Mongol Invasion Scrolls Online - an interactive viewer detailing the Moko Shurai Ekotoba, developed by Professor Thomas Conlan.
- Mongol Invasions of Japan - selection of photos by Louis Chor.
- Mongol Invasions Painting Scrolls - more illustrations from the Moko Shurai Ekotoba.
