Modern Greek grammar

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Main article: Modern Greek

The grammar of Standard Modern Greek, as spoken in present-day Greece and Cyprus, is basically that of Demotic Greek, but it has also assimilated certain elements of Katharevousa, the archaic, learned variety of Greek imitating Classical Greek forms, which used to be the official language of Greece through much of the 19th and 20th centuries. Modern Greek grammar has preserved many features of Ancient Greek, but has also undergone changes in a similar direction as many other modern Indo-European languages, from more synthetic to more analytic structures.

Contents 1 General characteristics 1.1 Syntax 1.2 Morphology 1.3 Characteristics of the Balkan linguistic union 2 The verb 2.1 1st Conjugation 2.2 2nd Conjugation 2.3 Grammatical voice 2.4 Be and have 3 The nominal system 3.1 Article 3.1.1 The definite article 3.1.2 The indefinite article 3.2 Nouns 3.2.1 Masculine nouns 3.2.2 Feminine nouns 3.2.3 Neuter nouns 3.3 Adjectives 3.3.1 Comparative 3.4 Personal pronouns 3.5 Numerals 4 Prepositions 5 Conjunctions 6 Negation 7 Relative clauses 8 Notes 9 References

[edit] General characteristics

[edit] Syntax

The predominant word order in Greek is SVO (Subject-Verb-Object), but word order is quite freely variable, with VSO and other orders as frequent alternatives. Within the noun phrase, adjectives precede the noun (e.g. το μεγάλο σπίτι, to meghálo spíti, 'the big house'), while possessors follow it (e.g. το σπίτι μου, to spíti mu, 'my house'). The opposite order is possible as a marked alternative in both cases. Greek is a pro-drop language, i.e. subjects are typically not overtly expressed whenever they are inferable from context. Whereas the word order of the major elements within the clause is fairly free, certain grammatical elements attach to the verb as clitics and form a rigidly ordered group together with it. This applies particularly to unstressed object pronouns, negation particles, the tense particle θα (tha), and the subjunctive particle να (na). Likewise, possessive pronouns are enclitic to the nouns they modify.

[edit] Morphology

Greek is still a strongly inflectional language, although the richness of inflectional categories of Ancient Greek has been reduced over time. Nouns, adjectives and verbs are each divided into several inflectional classes (declension classes and conjugation classes), which have different sets of endings. In the nominals, the ancient inflectional system is well preserved, with the exception of the loss of one case, the dative, and the restructuring of several of the inflectional classes. In the verbal system, the loss of synthetic inflectional categories is somewhat greater, and several new analytic constructions have evolved instead.

[edit] Characteristics of the Balkan linguistic union

Several syntactic properties of Greek are characteristics shared with several other Balkan languages, with which Greek forms the so-called Balkan linguistic union. Among these characteristics are:

• The lack of an infinitive. In Greek, verbal complementation is typically formed with the help of finite (subjunctive) verb forms, in cases where English would use an infinitive (e.g. θέλω να πάω, thélo na páo, literally 'I-want that I-go', i.e. 'I want to go').
• The merger of the dative and the genitive case. In Greek, indirect objects are expressed partly through genitive forms of nouns or pronouns, and partly through a periphrasis consisting of the preposition σε (se, 'to') and the accusative.
• The use of a future construction derived from the verb 'want' (θέλει να théli na > θα tha).
• A tendency to use pre-verbal clitic object pronouns redundantly (clitic doubling), doubling an object that is also expressed elsewhere in the clause: e.g. το είδα το αυτοκίνητο (to ídha to aftokínito, 'I saw it, the car", literally 'It I-saw the car').
• One prominent feature of the Balkan linguistic union that Greek does not share is the use of a postposed definite article. The Greek article (like the Ancient Greek one) stands before the noun.

[edit] The verb

Greek verb morphology is structured around a basic 2-by-2 contrast of two aspects (imperfective and perfective), and two tenses (past and present/non-past). The aspects are expressed by two separate verb stems, while the tenses are marked mainly by different sets of endings. Of the four possible combinations, only three can be used in indicative function: the (imperfective) present, the imperfect (i.e. imperfective past) and the aorist (i.e. perfective past). All four combinations can be used in subjunctive function, where they are typically preceded by the particle να or by one of a set of subordinating conjunctions. There are also two imperatives, one for each aspect, and one invariable form, called infinitive (απαρέμφατο) which is formed from the present stem.

In addition to these basic forms, Greek also has several periphrastic verb constructions. There is a perfect, which is expressed by an inflected form of the auxiliary verb έχω ('have') and an invariant verb form derived from the perfective stem, historically a reflex of the old aorist infinitive. This occurs both as a past perfect (pluperfect) and as a present perfect.

In addition, all the basic forms can be combined with the future particle θα (historically derived from the verb θέλω, 'want'). Combined with the non-past forms, this creates an imperfective and a perfective future. Combined with the imperfective past it is used as a conditional, and with the perfective past as an inferential.

The augment in Modern Greek is only used when the vowel of the augment is accented both in simple and composite verbs. In this case the last vowel of the preposition is expelled except the prepositions παρά and περί. The temporal augment is rarely occurred in some verbs. Then the initial vowels α and ε are converted to η while the letter ο is never converted to ω. There are also verbs which form the past tenses using an irregular augment which is usually an η. Below, the is a concentrating table giving some examples:

Type of verb	Present tense		Past tenses
			Perfective		Imperfective
Simple	γράφω	gráfo	έγραψα	égrapsa	έγραφα	égrafa
Composite	περιγράφω < περί + γράφω	perigráfo	περιέγραψα	periégrapsa	περιέγραφα	periégrafa
	υπογράφω < υπό + γράφω	ipográfo	υπέγραψα	ipégrapsa	υπέγραφα	ipégrafa
	διαγράφω < δια + γράφω	diagráfo	διέγραψα	diégrapsa	διέγραφα	diégrafa
Initial vowel	ελπίζω	elpízo	ήλπισα	ílpisa	ήλπιζα	ílpiza
Composite and initial vowel	υπάρχω < υπό + άρχω	ipárcho	υπήρξα	ipírxa	υπήρχα	ipírcha
Irregular augment	είμαι	íme	——	——	ήμουν	ímoun
	έχω	écho	——	——	είχα	ícha
	θέλω	thélo	θέλησα (no augment)	thélisa	ήθελα	íthela
	ξέρω	xéro	——	——	ήξερα	íxera
	πίνω	píno	ήπια	ípia	έπινα	épina

The tables below exemplify the range of forms with those of one large inflectional class of verbs, the 1st Conjugation.

[edit] 1st Conjugation

Aspect	Stem		Past	Non-Past	Imperative
Imperfective	γραφ-	1.Sg. 2.Sg. 3.Sg. 1.Pl. 2.Pl. 3.Pl.	Imperfect έγραφα έγραφες έγραφε γράφαμε γράφατε έγραφαν I used to write I was writing	Present γράφω γράφεις γράφει γράφουμε γράφετε γράφουν I write I am writing	Imperative Impf.   γράφε     γράφετε   write! (continually)
Perfective	γραψ-	1.Sg. 2.Sg. 3.Sg. 1.Pl. 2.Pl. 3.Pl.	Aorist έγραψα έγραψες έγραψε γράψαμε γράψατε έγραψαν I wrote	Subjunctive Pf. γράψω γράψεις γράψει γράψουμε γράψετε γράψουν that I write	Imperative Pf.   γράψε     γράψτε   write! (once)
Perfect		1.Sg. 2.Sg. 3.Sg. 1.Pl. 2.Pl. 3.Pl.	Past Perfect είχα γράψει είχες γράψει είχε γράψει είχαμε γράψει είχατε γράψει είχαν γράψει I had written	Present Perfect έχω γράψει έχεις γράψει έχει γράψει έχουμε γράψει έχετε γράψει έχουν γράψει I have written
				Gerund/Part. γράφοντας writing

	Past	Non-Past
Impf.	θα έγραφα I would write	θα γράφω I will write (continually)
Pf.	θα έγραψα I have probably written	θα γράψω I will write (once)
Perf.	θα είχα γράψει I would have written	θα έχω γράψει I will have written

[edit] 2nd Conjugation

Below are the corresponding forms of two subtypes of another class, the 2nd Conjugation. Only the basic forms are shown here; the periphrastic combinations are formed as shown above. While the person-number endings are quite regular across all verbs within each of these classes, the formation of the two basic stems for each verb displays a lot of irregularity and can follow any of a large number of idiosyncratic patterns.

	μιλάω/μιλώ ('talk')			οδηγώ ('lead')
	Past	Non-Past	Imper.	Past	Non-Past	Imper.
Impf.	μιλούσα μιλούσες μιλούσε μιλούσαμε μιλούσατε μιλούσαν	μιλάω/μιλώ μιλάς μιλάει/μιλά μιλάμε μιλάτε μιλάνε/μιλούν	μίλα     μιλάτε	οδηγούσα οδηγούσες οδηγούσε οδηγούσαμε οδηγούσατε οδηγούσαν	οδηγώ οδηγείς οδηγεί οδηγούμε οδηγείτε οδηγούν	οδήγα†     οδηγάτε†
Pf.	μίλησα μίλησες μίλησε μιλήσαμε μιλήσατε μίλησαν	Subjunctive μιλήσω μιλήσεις μιλήσει μιλήσουμε μιλήσετε μιλήσουν	μίλησε     μιλήστε	οδήγησα οδήγησες οδήγησε οδηγήσαμε οδηγήσατε οδήγησαν	Subjunctive οδηγήσω οδηγήσεις οδηγήσει οδηγήσουμε οδηγήσετε οδηγήσουν	οδήγησε     οδηγήστε
		έχω μιλήσει μιλώντας			έχω οδηγήσει οδηγώντας

† Alternative endings: οδήγει, οδηγείτε. Some verbs use only these types and especially the plural.

[edit] Grammatical voice

Greek has a morphological contrast between two grammatical voices: active and mediopassive. The mediopassive has several functions:

• Passive function, denoting an action that is performed on the subject by another agent (e.g. σκοτώθηκε 'he was killed');
• Reflexive function, denoting an action performed by the subject on him-/herself (e.g. ξυρίστηκε 'he shaved himself');
• Reciprocal function, denoting an action performed by several subjects on each other (e.g. αγαπιούνται 'they love each other');
• Modal function, denoting the possibility of an action (e.g. τρώγεται 'it is eatable');
• Deponential function: verbs that occur only in the mediopassive and lack a corresponding active form. They often have meanings that are rendered as active in other languages: εργάζομαι 'Ι work'; κοιμάμαι 'I sleep'; δέχομαι 'I accept'. There are also many verbs that have both an active and a mediopassive form but where the mediopassive has a special function that may be rendered with a separate verb in other languages: e.g. active σηκώνω 'I raise', passive σηκώνομαι 'I get up'; active βαράω 'I strike', passive βαριέμαι 'I am bored'.

	γράφω ('write')			μιλάω ('talk')			οδηγώ ('lead')
	Past	Non-Past	Imper.	Past	Non-Past	Imper.	Past	Non-Past	Imper.
Impf.	γραφόμουν γραφόσουν γραφόταν γραφόμασταν γραφόσασταν γράφονταν	γράφομαι γράφεσαι γράφεται γραφόμαστε γράφεστε γράφονται	—     —	μιλιόμουν μιλιόσουν μιλιόταν μιλιόμασταν μιλιόσασταν μιλιούνταν	μιλιέμαι μιλιέσαι μιλιέται μιλιόμαστε μιλιόσαστε μιλιούνται	—     —	οδηγόμουν οδηγόσουν οδηγόταν οδηγόμασταν οδηγόσασταν οδηγούνταν	οδηγούμαι οδηγείσαι οδηγείται οδηγούμαστε οδηγείστε οδηγούνται	—     —
Pf.	γράφτηκα γράφτηκες γράφτηκε γραφτήκαμε γραφτήκατε γράφτηκαν	Subjunctive γραφτώ γραφτείς γραφτεί γραφτούμε γραφτείτε γραφτούν	γράψου     γραφτείτε	μιλήθηκα μιλήθηκες μιλήθηκε μιληθήκαμε μιληθήκατε μιλήθηκαν	Subjunctive μιληθώ μιληθείς μιληθεί μιληθούμε μιληθείτε μιληθούν	μιλήσου     μιληθείτε	οδηγήθηκα οδηγήθηκες οδηγήθηκε οδηγηθήκαμε οδηγηθήκατε οδηγήθηκαν	Subjunctive οδηγηθώ οδηγηθείς οδηγηθεί οδηγηθούμε οδηγηθείτε οδηγηθούν	οδηγήσου     οδηγηθείτε
		έχω γραφτεί			έχω μιληθεί			έχω οδηγηθεί

There also two other categories of verbs which historically correspond to the ancient contracted verbs.

	εγγυώμαι ('guarantee')			στερούμαι ('lack')
	Past	Non-Past	Imper.	Past	Non-Past	Imper.
Impf.	— — — — — —	εγγυώμαι εγγυάσαι εγγυάται εγγυόμαστε εγγυάστε εγγυώνται	—     —	στερούμουν στερούσουν στερούνταν and στερείτο στερούμασταν στερούσασταν στερούνταν	στερούμαι στερείσαι στερείται στερούμαστε στερείστε στερούνται	—     —
Pf.	εγγυήθηκα εγγυήθηκες εγγυήθηκε εγγυηθήκαμε εγγυηθήκατε εγγυήθηκαν	Subjunctive εγγυηθώ εγγυηθείς εγγυηθεί εγγυηθούμε εγγυηθείτε εγγυηθούν	εγγυήσου     εγγυηθείτε	στερήθηκα στερήθηκες στερήθηκε στερηθήκαμε στερηθήκατε στερήθηκαν	Subjunctive στερηθώ στερηθείς στερηθεί στερηθούμε στερηθείτε στερηθούν	στερήσου     στερηθείτε
	έχω εγγυηθεί			έχω στερηθεί

• There also more formal suffixes instead of -μασταν, -σασταν: -μαστε, -σαστε. In this case the suffixes of the first person of the plural of present and imperfect are the same.

[edit] Be and have

The verbs είμαι ('be') and έχω ('have') are irregular and defective, as they both lack the aspectual contrast. The forms of είμαι are given below; for those of έχω see the table of the Perfect forms above.

Present	Past	Participle
είμαι είσαι είναι είμαστε είστε (είσαστε) είναι	ήμουν ήσουν ήταν ήμασταν or ήμαστε ήσασταν or ήσαστε ήταν	όντας

Present	Past	Participle
έχω έχεις έχει έχουμε έχετε έχουν	είχα είχες είχε είχαμε είχατε είχαν	έχοντας

[edit] The nominal system

The Greek nominal system displays inflection for two numbers (singular and plural), three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and four cases (nominative, genitive, accusative and vocative). As in many other Indo-European languages, the distribution of grammatical gender across nouns is largely arbitrary and need not coincide with natural sex. Case, number and gender are marked on the noun as well as on articles and adjectives modifying it. While there are four cases, there is a great degree of syncretism between case forms within most paradigms. Only one sub-group of the masculine nouns actually has four distinct forms in the four cases.

[edit] Article

There are two articles in Modern Greek, the definite and the indefinite. They are both inflected by gender and case, and the definite article also for number. The article agrees with the noun it modifies.

[edit] The definite article

		Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
Singular	Nominative	ο	o	η	i	το	to
	Genitive	του	tu	της	tis	του	tu
	Accusative	το(ν)[1]	to(n)	τη(ν)[1]	ti(n)	το	to
Plural	Nominative	οι	i	οι	i	τα	ta
	Genitive	των	ton	των	ton	των	ton
	Accusative	τους	tus	τις	tis	τα	ta

The definite article is used more frequently in Greek than in English. It is used:

• Before nouns used in an abstract or a general sense:
  • E.g. Μου αρέσει η ειλικρίνεια (mu arési i ilikrínia, 'I like sincerity'; literally 'I like the sincerity').
  • Τα κάρβουνα είναι ακριβά φέτος (ta kárvuna íne akrivá fétos, 'coal is expensive this year'; literally 'the coal is expensive this year').
• Before proper names, including names of persons, placenames, and titles:
  • E.g. Ο Γιάννης θα έρθει αύριο (o jánis tha érthi ávrio, 'John will come tomorrow'; literally 'the John will come tomorrow').
• Before each noun in a series of nouns connected by and:
  • E.g. Ήρθαν τα βιβλία, τα περιοδικά και οι εφημερίδες που ζήτησα; (írthan ta vivlía, ta periodhiká ke i efimerídhes pu zítisa?, 'Have the books, magazines and newspapers I asked for arrived?'; literally 'the books, the magazines and the newspapers')
• Before designations of time such as the year, the week and the hour as well as before the names of the seasons, the days of the week except when they follow the verb είμαι (to be):
  • E.g. Το τρένο φεύγει στις δέκα (to tréno févji stis dhéka, 'the train leaves at ten'; literally 'at the ten').
• Before expressions of measure and weight, where the indefinite article would be used in English:
  • E.g. Το τυρί κοστίζει πέντε ευρώ το κιλό (to tirí kostízi pénde evró to kiló, 'the cheese costs five euros a kilo'; literally 'five euros the kilo').
• Before a noun which is also modified by a possessor following it:
  • E.g. Το σπίτι μου είναι εδώ (to spíti mu íne edhó, 'My house is here'; literally 'the house my is here').
• Before nouns modified by a demonstrative adjective. In this case, the definite article is placed between the demonstrative adjective and the noun:
  • E.g. Αυτό το κρασί είναι καλό (aftó to krasí íne kaló, 'this wine is good'; literally 'this the wine is good').

[edit] The indefinite article

The indefinite article in Greek is identical with the numeral one. As in English, it exists only in the singular. Indefiniteness in plural nouns is expressed by the bare noun without an article.

	Singular
	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
Nominative	ένας	enas	μία	mía	ένα	ena
Genitive	ενός	enós	μιας	mjas	ενός	enós
Accusative	ένα(ν)[1]	éna(n)	μία	mia	ένα	éna

The indefinite article is not used in Greek as often as in English because it specifically expresses the concept of "one". It is omitted:

• Before predicate nouns:
  • Είναι δικηγόρος (íne dhikighóros, 'he is a lawyer'; literally 'is lawyer').
• Before nouns that have no specific reference:
  • Ψάχνω δουλειά (psáchno dhuljá, 'I'm looking for a job'; i.e. not a specific job known to the speaker)
• In exclamations with nouns preceded with τι (what):
  • Τι καλό παιδί! (ti kaló pedhí, 'What a good boy!'; literally 'what good boy')
• Before a noun preceded by σαν (san, 'like'):
• Αυτό το χριστουγεννιάτικο δέντρο φαίνεται σαν αληθινό δέντρο (aftó to christujenjátiko dhéndro fénete san alithinó dhéndro, 'this Christmas tree looks like a real tree'; literally 'like real tree')
• In proverbs:
  • Σκυλί που γαβγίζει δε δαγκώνει (skilí pu ghavjízi dhe dhangóni, 'a dog that barks does not bite'; literally 'dog that barks')

[edit] Nouns

Greek nouns are inflected by case and number. In addition each noun belongs to one of three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter. Within each of the three genders, there are several sub-groups (declension classes) with different sets of inflectional endings.

[edit] Masculine nouns

The table shows three of the most frequent declension classes: one with singulars in -ος (-os) and plurals in -οι (-i); one with singulars in -ας (-as) and plurals in -ες (-es), one with singulars in -ης (-is) and again plurals in -ες (-es) and one with singulars in -εας (-eas) and plurals in -εις (-is). There are some other, minor ones. Historically, the class in -ος corresponds to the Ancient Greek o-Declension. The other classes represent a conflation of several different sources.

			Group 1: -ος/-οι φίλος (fílos 'friend')		Group 2: -ας/-ες άντρας (andras 'man')		Group 3: -ης/-ες χάρτης (chártis 'map')		Group 3: -εας/-εις προβολέας (provoléas 'searchlight')
Singular	Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative	ο o του tu το(ν) to(n)	φίλος φίλου φίλο φίλε	-os -u -o -e	άντρας άντρα άντρα άντρα	-as -a -a -a	χάρτης χάρτη χάρτη χάρτη	-is -i -i -i	προβολέας προβολέα προβολέας προβολέας	-eas -ea -ea -ea
Plural	Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative	οι i των ton τους tus	φίλοι φίλων φίλους φίλοι	-i -on -us -i	άντρες αντρών άντρες άντρες	-es -on -es -es	χάρτες χαρτών χάρτες χάρτες	-es -on -es -es	προβολείς προβολέων προβολείς προβολείς	-is -eon -is -is

Groups 2 and 3 each have subclasses of so-called anisosyllabic nouns, where the Plural is formed with the addition of a stem extension -αδ- (-adh-) and -ηδ- (-idh-), respectively. Examples are for Group 2a: παππάς/παππάδες (papás/papádhes, 'priest'), and for Group 3a: μανάβης/μανάβηδες (manávis/manávidhes, 'greengrocer'). The endings following the stem extension are the same as in the other words of Groups 2 and 3.

[edit] Feminine nouns

The two most frequent classes of feminine nouns are those with singulars in -α (-a) and in -η (-i) respectively, both with plurals in -ες (-es) (Groups 1 and 2 in the tables below). They both correspond historically to the Ancient Greek a-Declension. There are certain subgroups (not shown in the table) which differ from each other in the placement of the accented syllable. A third group corresponds to Ancient Greek nouns in -ις (-is), such as πόλις (polis, 'city'). Its singular forms have been adapted to those of Group 2, while its plural forms have retained the ancient pattern (plurals in -εις -is). The ancient forms of the Genitive Singular (πόλεως, -eos) are also found as a stylistic variant and they are fully acceptable. Group 4 corresponds to the Ancient Greek feminine o-Declension. Its forms are largely identical to those of the masculines in -os. Except for Group 4, all classes have identical forms in the nominative, accusative and vocative.

			Group 1: -α/-ες ώρα (óra, 'time')		Group 2: -η/-ες εποχή (epochí, 'season')		Group 3: -η/-εις πόλη (póli, 'city')		Group 4: -ος/-οι μέθοδος (méthodhos, 'method')
Singular	Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative	η i της tis τη(ν) tin	ώρα ώρας ώρα ώρα	-a -as -a -a	εποχή εποχής εποχή εποχή	-i -is -i -i	πόλη πόλης and πόλεως πόλη πόλη	-i -is and -eos -i -i	μέθοδος μεθόδου μέθοδο μέθοδος (-ε)	-os -u -o -os (-e)
Plural	Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative	οι i των ton τις tis	ώρες ωρών ώρες ώρες	-es -on -es -es	εποχές εποχών εποχές εποχές	-es -on -es -es	πόλεις πόλεων πόλεις πόλεις	-is -eon -is -is	μέθοδοι μεθόδων μεθόδους μέθοδοι	-i -on -ous -i

[edit] Neuter nouns

All neuter nouns have identical forms across the nominative, accusative and vocative. The table below therefore shows only two forms, the common form labeled N/A/V, and the genitive. There are two classes that are by far the most frequent ones, one with singulars in -o and plurals in -a, the other with singulars in -i and plurals in -ia (Groups 1 and 2 in the table below).

			Group 1: -ο/-α βιβλίο (vivlío, 'book')		Group 2: -ι/-ια παιδί (pedhí, 'child')		Group 3: -μα/-ματα πρόβλημα (próvlima 'problem')		Group 4: -ος/-η λάθος (láthos, 'error')		Group 5: -ας/-ατα κρέας (kréas, 'meat')		Unique: -υ/-εα οξύ (oxí, 'acid')		Unique: -υ/-ατα δόρυ (dhóri, 'spear')
Singular	N/A/V Genitive	το to του tu	βιβλίο βιβλίου	-o -u	παιδί παιδιού	-i -ju	πρόβλημα προβλήματος	-ma -matos	λάθος λάθους	-os -us	κρέας κρέατος	-as -atos	οξύ οξέος	-i -eos	δόρυ δόρατος	-i -atos
Plural	N/A/V Genitive	τα ta των ton	βιβλία βιβλίων	-a -on	παιδιά παιδιών	-ja -jon	προβλήματα προβλημάτων	-mata -maton	λάθη λαθών	-i -on	κρέατα κρεάτων	-ata -aton	οξέα οξέων	-ea -eon	δόρατα δοράτων	-ata -aton

[edit] Adjectives

Adjectives agree with nouns in gender, case and number. Therefore, each adjective has a threefold declension paradigm for the three genders. Adjectives show agreement both when they are used as attributes (ο καλός φίλος, o kalós fílos, 'the good friend') and when they are used as predicates (ο φίλος είναι καλός, o fílos íne kalós, 'the friend is good').

The vast majority of adjectives take forms in -ος in the masculine (same as masculine Group 1 nouns above), -ο in the neuter (same as neuter Group 1 nouns above), and either -η, -α, or -ια in the feminine (same as feminine Group 1/2 nouns above). Again, there are some other, minor groups and sub-classes.

Adjectives agree with the noun in terms of its abstract gender, not in terms of the shapes of the actual endings, since these depend on the individual declension class of both the noun and the adjective. This means that the concrete endings occurring in any pair of noun and adjective may be quite different from each other, depending on the classes involved (e.g. η καλή μέθοδος, i kalí méthodhos, 'the good method'; τα νέα λάθη, ta néa láthi, 'the new errors').

The table below shows the forms for νέος, -α, -ο (néos 'new'), καλός, -η, -ο (kalós 'good'), and γλυκός, -ιά, -ό (ghlikós 'sweet').

		Masculine		Feminine						Neuter
				Group 1		Group 2		Group 3
Singular	Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative	νέος νέου νέο νέε	-os -u -o -e	νέα νέας νέα νέα	-a -as -a -a	καλή καλής καλή καλή	-i -is -i -i	γλυκιά γλυκιάς γλυκιά γλυκιά	-ja -jas -ja -ja	νέο νέου νέο νέο	-o -u -o -o
Plural	Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative	νέοι νέων νέους νέοι	-i -on -us -i	νέες νέων νέες νέες	-es -on -es -es	καλές καλών καλές καλές	-es -on -es -es	γλυκές γλυκών γλυκές γλυκές	-es -on -es -es	νέα νέων νέα νέα	-a -on -a -a
		Analogous: καλός ... γλυκός ...								Analogous: καλό ... γλυκό ...

Other adjective classes include the following:

• Certain adjectives, usually denoting human characteristics, whose masculine and feminine forms decline like nouns of the masculine Group 3a (-ης/-ηδες, -is/-idhes) and the feminine Group 1 (-α), while the neuter ends in -ικο (-iko), e.g. τεμπέλης, τεμπέλα, τεμπέλικο (tembélis, tembéla, tembéliko, 'lazy').
• Some adjectives of learned origin which lack a separate form for the feminine, using the regular -ος (-os) paradigm both for the masculine and the feminine gender, e.g. έγκυος (éngios, 'pregnant').
• Another class of learned origin, with masculine/feminine in -ης (-is) and neuter in -ες (-es), e.g. διεθνής (dhiethnís 'international').
• A small group of adjectives in -ύς, -ιά, -ύ (-is, -ia, -i), e.g. βαρύς (varís, 'heavy'), and the similar but even more irregular single item πολύς, πολλή, πολύ (polís, polí, polí, 'much').

• These adjectives are declined this way:

		Group 1: -ής, -ές/-είς, -ή συνεχής (sinechís, 'continual')				Group 2: -ης, -ες/-εις, -η συνήθης (siníthis, 'usual')				Group 3: -υς, -υ/-εις, -ια βαθύς (bathís, 'deep')
		Masc. - Fem.		Neuter		Masc. - Fem.		Neuter		Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
Singular	Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative	συνεχής συνεχούς συνεχή συνεχής	-is -ous -i -is	συνεχές συνεχούς συνεχές συνεχές	-es -ous -es -es	συνήθης συνήθους συνήθη συνήθης	-is -ous -i -is	σύνηθες συνήθους σύνηθες σύνηθες	-es -ous -es -es	βαθύς βαθέος βαθύ βαθύ	-is -eos -i -i	βαθιά βαθιάς βαθιά βαθιά	-ja -jas -ja -ja	βαθύ βαθέος βαθύ βαθύ	-i -eos -i -i
Plural	Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative	συνεχείς συνεχών συνεχείς συνεχείς	-is -on -is -is	συνεχή συνεχών συνεχή συνεχή	-i -on -i -i	συνήθεις συνήθων συνήθεις συνήθεις	-is -on -is -is	συνήθη συνήθων συνήθη συνήθη	-i -on -i -i	βαθείς or βαθιοί βαθέων or βαθιών βαθείς βαθείς or βαθιοί	-is or ji -eon or -jon -is is or ji	βαθιές βαθιών βαθιές βαθιές	-jes -jon -jes -jes	βαθέα or βαθιά βαθέων or βαθιών βαθέα or βαθιά βαθέα or βαθιά	-ea or -ja -eon or -jon -ea or -ja -ea or -ja

• The adjective πολύς - πολλή - πολύ is declined this way:

		Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
Singular	Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative	πολύς πολλού πολύ πολύ	-is -ou -i -i	πολλή πολλής πολλή πολλή	-i -is -i -i	πολύ πολλού πολύ πολύ	-i -ou -i -i
Plural	Nominative Genitive Accusative Vocative	πολλοί πολλών πολλούς πολλοί	-i -on -ous -i	πολλές πολλών πολλές πολλές	-es -on -es -es	πολλά πολλών πολλά πολλά	-a -on -a -a

[edit] Comparative

Adjectives in Modern Greek can form a comparative for expressing comparisons. Similar to English, it can be formed in two ways, as a periphrastic form (as in English beautiful > more beautiful) and as synthetic form using grammatical suffixes, as in English large > larger) . The periphrastic comparative is formed by the particle πιο (pjo, 'more') preceding the adjective. The synthetic forms of the regular adjectives in -ος, -η and -o is created with the suffix -οτερος -οτερη and -οτερο. For those adjectives which end in -ης, -ης and -ες the corresponding suffixes are -εστερος -εστερη and -εστερο.

A superlative is expressed by combining the comparative, in either its periphrastic or synthetic form, with a preceding definite article. (Thus, Modern Greek does not distinguish between 'the largest house' and 'the larger house'; both are το μεγαλύτερο σπίτι or το πιο μεγάλο σπίτι.)

Besides the superlative proper, sometimes called "relative superlative", there is also an "absolute superlative" or elative, expressing the meaning 'very …' (e.g. ωραιότατος 'very beautiful'). Elatives are formed with the suffixes -οτατος, -οτατη and -οτατο for the regular adjectives, and -εστατος -εστατη and -εστατο for those in -ης.

Simple form		Comparative form		Superlative form
				Relative		Absolute (elative)
		Periphrastic	Synthetic	Periphrastic	Synthetic	Periphrastic	Synthetic
Adjectives	ψηλός	πιο ψηλός	ψηλότερος	ο πιο ψηλός	ο ψηλότερος	πολύ ψηλός	ψηλότατος
	σοφός	πιο σοφός	σοφότερος	ο πιο σοφός	ο σοφότερος	πολύ σοφός	σοφότατος
	ωραίος	πιο ωραίος	ωραιότερος	ο πιο ωραίος	ο ωραιότερος	πολύ ωραίος	ωραιότατος
	πλούσιος	πιο πλούσιος	πλουσιότερος	ο πιο πλούσιος	ο πλουσιότερος	πολύ πλούσιος	πλουσιότατος
	βαθύς	πιο βαθύς	βαθύτερος	ο πιο βαθύς	ο βαθύτερος	πολύ βαθύς	βαθύτατος
	επιεικής	πιο επιεικής	επιεικέστερος	ο πιο επιεικής	ο επιεικέστερος	πολύ επιεικής	επιεικέστατος
Participles	ευτυχισμένος	πιο ευτυχισμένος	—	ο πιο ευτυχισμένος	—	πολύ ευτιχισμένος	—
Adverbs	ψηλά	πιο ψηλά	ψηλότερα	—	—	πολύ ψηλά	ψηλότατα
	επιεικώς	πιο επιεικώς	επιεικέστερα	—	—	πολύ επιεικώς	επιεικέστατα

[edit] Personal pronouns

There are strong pronouns (stressed, free) and weak pronouns (unstressed, clitic). Nominative pronouns only have the strong form (except in some minor environments) and are used as subjects only when special emphasis is intended, since unstressed subjects recoverable from context are not overtly expressed anyway. Genitive (possessive) pronouns are used in their weak forms as pre-verbal clitics to express indirect objects (e.g. του μίλησα, tu mílisa, 'I talked to him'), and as a post-nominal clitic to express possession (e.g. οι φίλοι του, i fíli tu, 'his friends'). The strong genitive forms are relatively rare and used only for special emphasis (e.g. αυτού οι φίλοι, aftú i fíli, 'his friends'); often they are doubled by the weak forms (e.g. αυτού του μίλησα, aftú tu mílisa, 'him I talked to'). An alternative way of giving emphasis to a possessive pronoun is propping it up with the stressed adjective δικός (dhikós, 'own'), e.g. οι δικοί του φίλοι (i dhikí tu fíli, 'his friends').

Accusative pronouns exist both in a weak and a strong form. The weak form is used as a pre-verbal clitic (e.g. τον είδα, ton ídha, 'I saw him'); the strong form is used elsewhere in the clause (e.g. είδα αυτόν, ídha aftón, 'I saw him'). Third-person pronouns have separate forms for the three genders; those of the first and second Person do not. The weak third-person forms are similar to the corresponding forms of the definite article. The strong third-person forms function simultaneously as generic demonstratives ('this, that').

The strong plural forms of the third person in the genitive and accusative (αυτών, αυτούς etc.) have optional alternative forms extended by an additional syllable -on- or -un- (αυτωνών, αυτουνούς etc.)

			1st person		2nd person		3rd person
							Masc.		Fem.		Neut.
Strong	Singular	Nominative	εγώ	eghó	εσύ	esí	αυτός	aftós	αυτή	aftí	αυτό	aftó
		Genitive	εμένα	eména	εσένα	eséna	αυτoύ	aftú	αυτής	aftís	αυτού	aftú
		Accusative	εμένα	eména	εσένα	eséna	αυτόν	aftón	αυτήν	aftín	αυτό	aftó
	Plural	Nominative	εμείς	emís	εσείς	esís	αυτοί	aftí	αυτές	aftés	αυτά	aftá
		Genitive	εμάς	emás	εσάς	esás	αυτών	aftón	αυτών	aftón	αυτών	aftón
		Accusative	εμάς	emás	εσάς	esás	αυτούς	aftús	αυτές	aftés	αυτά	aftá
Weak	Singular	Nominative	–		–		τος	tos	τη	ti	το	to
		Genitive	μου	mu	σου	su	του	tu	της	tis	του	tu
		Accusative	με	me	σε	se	τον	to	τη(ν)[1]	ti	το	to
	Plural	Nominative	–		–		τοι	ti	τες	tes	τα	ta
		Genitive	μας	mas	σας	sas	τους	tus	τους	tus	τους	tus
		Accusative	μας	mas	σας	sas	τους	tus	τις	tis	τα	ta

Besides αυτός (aftós) as a generic demonstrative, there are also the more specific spatial demonstrative pronouns τούτος, -η, -ο (tutos, 'this here') and εκείνος, -η, -ο (ekínos, 'that there').

[edit] Numerals

The numerals in Modern Greek are very similar to those of the Ancient Greek. The numerals one, three and four are also declined by using the obsolete types of the third declension of the nouns.

	Singular						Plural
	ένας - μία - ένα (1)						τρεις - τρία (3)				τέσσερις - τέσσερα (4)
	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter		Masc. - Fem.		Neuter		Masc. - Fem.		Neuter
Nominative	ένας	enas	μία	mía	ένα	ena	τρεις	tris	τρία	tria	τέσσερις	tesseris	τέσσερα	tessera
Genitive	ενός	enós	μιας	mjas	ενός	enós	τριών	trion	τριών	trion	τεσσάρων	tessaron	τεσσάρων	tessaron
Accusative	ένα(ν)[2]	éna(n)	μία	mia	ένα	éna	τρεις	tris	τρία	tria	τέσσερις	tesseris	τέσσερα	tessera

[edit] Prepositions

In Demotic Greek prepositions require the accusative case: από (from), για (for), με (with), μετά (after), χωρίς (without), ως (as) and σε (to, in or at). The preposition σε, when followed by a definite article, fuses with it into forms like στο (σε + το) and στη (σε + τη). Prepositions can be preceded by adverbs with which they can form new compound prepositions, e.g. πάνω σε (on), κάτω από (underneath), πλάι σε (beside) etc. A few prepositions that take cases other than the accusative have been borrowed into Standard Modern Greek from the learned tradition of Katharevousa: κατά (against), υπέρ (in favor of, for), αντί (instead of). Other prepositions live on in a fossilised form in certain fixed expressions (e.g. εν τω μεταξύ 'in the meantime', dative).

[edit] Conjunctions

Co-ordinating conjunctions in Greek include:

Kinds	Conjunctions	Meaning
Copulative	και (κι), ούτε, μήτε, ουδέ, μηδέ	and, neither
Separatist	ή, είτε	or
Negative	μα, αλλά, παρά, όμως, ωστόσο, ενώ, αν και, μολονότι, μόνο	but
Inferential	λοιπόν, ώστε, άρα, επομένως, που	so, so as
Explanatory	δηλαδή	so
Special	ότι, πως, που	that
Temporal	όταν, σαν, ενώ, καθώς, αφού, αφού, αφότου, πριν (πριν να), μόλις, προτού, ώσπου, ωσότου, όσο που, όποτε	when, while, after, before, just, until
Explaining	γιατί, διότι, επειδή, αφού	because
Hypothetical	αν, εάν, άμα, σαν	if
Final	να, για να	so as
Efficacious	ώστε (να), που	so as
Hesitant	μη(ν), μήπως	maybe, perhaps
Comparative	παρά

The word να (na) serves as a generic subordinator corresponding roughly to English to (+ infinitive) or that in sentences like προτιμώ να πάω (protimó na páo, 'I prefer to go', literally 'I prefer that I go') or προτιμώ να πάει ο Γιάννης (protimó na pái o Jánnis, 'I'd prefer that Yannis should go'). It marks the following verb as being in the subjunctive mood. Somewhat similar to the English to-infinitive its use is often associated with meanings of non-factuality, i.e. events that have not (yet) come true, that are expected, wished for etc. In this, it contrasts with ότι (óti) and πως (pos), which correspond to English that when used with a meaning of factuality. The difference can be seen in the contrast between μας είπε να πάμε βόλτα (mas ípe na páme vólta, 'he told us to go for a walk') vs. μας είπε πως πήγε βόλτα (mas ípe pos píje vólta, 'he told us that he went for a walk'). When used on its own with a following verb, να may express a wish or order, as in να πάει! (na pái, 'let him go'). Unlike the other subordinating conjunctions, να is always immediately followed by the verb it governs, separated from it only by any clitics that might be attached to the verb, but not by a subject or other clause-initial material.

[edit] Negation

For sentence negation, Greek has preserved from Proto-Indo-European a distinction between two negator elements, δε(ν) dhe(n)^[1] and μη(ν) mi(n), 'not'. The negator δεν is used for simple negation in clauses with indicative mood. The negator μην is used in subjunctive contexts, either after subjunctive-inducing να or as a negative replacement for να. It is often associated with the expression of a wish for an event not to come true, as in: φοβάμαι μη βρέξει (fováme mi vréksi, 'I'm afraid lest it might rain'), or with a negated order or recommendation, as in: μας είπε να μην πάμε βόλτα (mas ípe na min páme vólta, 'he told us not to go for a walk'); να μην πάει! (na min pái, 'let him not go!'). When used alone with a verb in the second person, it forms the functional equivalent to a negative imperative: μην πας! (min pas, 'don't go!'). The imperative itself has no negative forms, something which is preserved from Ancient Greek, and the negative is formed by the types of the subjunctive. e.g. παίξε (péxe, 'play!'), μην παίξεις (min péxis, 'don't play!').

For constituent negation, i.e. when negating not a whole clause but a specific constituent of it, Greek uses negative concord, i.e. a combination of the sentence negator (δεν/μην) with a negative-polarity item on the constituent to be negated, as in: δεν έχω κανένα νέο (dhen écho kanéna néo, 'I don't have any news'). These negative-polarity items, when used in a full clause with a verb, correspond to English words in any- (anything, anybody, anywhere etc.); however, they can also be used on their own when negating a standalone phrase without a verb, in which case they are translatable with English words in no- (nothing, nobody, none, nowhere etc.). This can be seen in the example dialogue:

Έχεις κανένα νέο; – Όχι, κανένα. (échis kanéna néo? – Ochi, kanéna. 'Have you got any news? – No, none.')

The κανείς, καμία, κανένα is declined thus (only singular):

	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
Nominative Genitive Accusative	κανένας or κανείς κανενός κανένα	-enas or -is -enos -ena	καμία καμιάς καμία	-mia -mias -mia	κανένα κανενός κανένα	-ena -enos -ena

• The ουδείς, ουδεμία, ουδείς is generally rare and conservative. It is declined like the κανείς but does not have the forms ουδένας and ουδένα but only ουδείς and ουδέν. When ουδείς is used the double negation cannot be used.

[edit] Relative clauses

Greek has two different ways of forming relative clauses. The simpler and by far the more frequent uses the invariable relativizer που (pu, 'that', literally 'where'), as in: η γυναίκα που είδα χτες (i jinéka pu ídha chtes, 'the woman that I saw yesterday'). When the relativized element is a subject, object or adverbial within the relative clause, then – as in English – it has no other overt expression within the relative clause apart from the relativizer. Some other types of relativized elements, however, such as possessors, are represented within the clause by a resumptive pronoun, as in: η γυναίκα που βρήκα την τσάντα της (i jinéka pu vríka tin dsánda tis, 'the woman whose handbag I found', literally 'the woman that I found her handbag').

The second, rarer and more formal, form of relative clauses employs complex inflected relative pronouns. They are composite elements consisting of the definite article and a following pronominal element that is inflected like an adjective: ο οποίος, η οποία, το οποίο (o opíos, i opía, to opío etc., literally 'the which'). Both elements are inflected for case, number and gender according to the grammatical properties of the relativized item within the relative clause, as in: η γυναίκα την οποία είδα χτες (i jinéka tin opía ídha chtes, 'the woman whom I saw yesterday'); η γυναίκα της οποίας βρηκα την τσάντα (i jinéka tis opías vríka tin dsánda, 'the woman whose handbag I found').

[edit] Notes

1. ^ ^{a b c d} When the following word begins with a plosive ([p, t, k, b, d, g]) or in formal language, these words take a final -ν (-n).

[edit] References

• Hardy, D. A. and Doyle, T. A. Greek language and people, BBC Books, 1996. ISBN 0-563-16575-8
• Holton, D., Mackridge, P., and I. Philippaki-Warburton. Greek: A comprehensive grammar of the modern language. Routledge, London, 1997, ISBN 0-415-10001-1, ISBN 0-415-10002-X. A very complete modern reference, also available abridged as Greek: An Essential Grammar of the Modern Language, Routledge , London, 2003, ISBN 0-415-23209-0, ISBN 0-415-23210-4
• Μαρινέτα, Δ. and Παπαχειμώνα, Δ. Ελληνικά Τώρα, Nostos, 1992. ISBN 960-85137-0-7
• Pappageotes, G. C. and Emmanuel, P. D. Modern Greek in a nutshell, Institute for language study, Montclair, N.J. 07042, Funk & Wagnalls, New York, 1958; "Vest Pocket Modern Greek", Owlets, 1990, ISBN 0-8050-1510-8, ISBN 0-8489-5106-9
• Pring, J. T. The Pocket Oxford Greek Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-860327-4