Military history of Pakistan

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Military of Pakistan
Joint Services Parade in 2005
Service branches	Pakistan Army Pakistan Air Force Pakistan Navy Pakistan Coast Guard Paramilitary forces of Pakistan Pakistan Strategic Nuclear Command
Headquarters	Rawalpindi
Leadership
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff	General Tariq Majid
Secretary of Defense	Kamran Rasool
Chief of Army Staff Chief of Air Staff Chief of Naval Staff	Ashfaq Parvez Kayani Tanvir Mahmood Ahmed Afzal Tahir
Military age	16-49 years old [1]
Available for military service	39,028,014 males, age 16-49 (2007 est.), 36,779,584 females, age 16-49 (2007 est.)
Fit for military service	29,428,747 males, age 16-49 (2007 est.), 28,391,887 females, age 16-49 (2007 est.)
Reaching military age annually	1,969,055 males (2007 est.), 1,849,254 females (2007 est.)
Active personnel	619,000 (ranked 7th)
Reserve personnel	528,500
Expenditures
Budget	$4.26 billion (ranked 39th)
Percent of GDP	4.5 (2006 est.)
Related articles
History	Military history of Pakistan UN Peacekeeping missions Weapons of mass destruction
Ranks	Awards and decorations of the Pakistan military

The military history of Pakistan can be viewed as the history of modern-day Pakistan, as the military of Pakistan has played and continues to play a vital role in the establishment and shaping of the country since its inception in 1947. Although Pakistan was founded as a democracy after the partition of the Indian sub-continent, the military has remained one of the country's most powerful institutions and has on occasion overthrown democratically elected governments on the basis of mismanagement and corruption. Successive governments have made sure that the military was consulted before they took key decisions, especially when those decisions related to the Kashmir Conflict. Political leaders know that the military has stepped into the political arena before at times of crisis, and could do so again.

The Military was created in 1947 by division of the British Indian Army and was given units who had a long and cherished history during the British Raj such as the Khyber Rifles, and had seen intensive service in World War I and World War II. Since independence, the military has fought three major wars with India and several minor border skirmishes with Afghanistan. It has also fought a limited conflict at Kargil with India after acquiring nuclear capabilities. After 9/11, the military is engaged in a protracted low intensity conflict along Pakistan's western border with the Taliban and Al-Qaeda militants, as well as those who support or provide shelter to them.

In addition, Pakistani troops have also participated in various foreign conflicts usually acting as United Nations peacekeepers. At present, Pakistan has the largest number of its personnel acting under the United Nations with the number standing at 10,173 as of 31 March 2007.^[2]

[edit] Time line and major events

The roots of the Pakistan army traces back to the British Indian Army which included several personnel from present day Pakistan. In picture are troops of the famous Khyber Rifles striking a pose. ~1895.

[edit] Origin

On June 3, 1947, the British Government announced its plan to divide British India between India and Pakistan and the subsequent transfer of power to the two countries. The division of the British Indian Army occurred on June 30, 1947 in which Pakistan received six armored, eight artillery and eight infantry regiments compared to the forty armored, forty artillery and twenty one infantry regiments that went to India.^[3] The Partition Council which chaired by the Viceroy of India Lord Mountbatten, the leaders of the Muslim League and the Indian National Congress had agreed that the British Indian Army of 11,800 officers and 500,000 enlisted personnel, be divided to the ratio of 64% for India and 36% for Pakistan.

Pakistan was forced to accept a smaller share of the armed forces as most of the military assets such as weapons depots, military bases were located inside India and those that were in Pakistan were mostly obsolete and it also had a dangerously low ammunition reserve of only one week.^[3] By August 15, 1947, both India and Pakistan had operational control over their armed forces.

The Pakistani armed forces initially numbered around 150,000 men, many scattered around various bases in India and needing to be transferred to Pakistan by train. The Partition of India created large scale communal violence in the subcontinent. Armed bands of militants detained and attacked the trains and massacred Indian military personnel and their families in Pakistan.^[4] In total, around seven million Muslims migrated to Pakistan and 5 million Sikhs and Hindus to India with over a million people dying in the process.

Of the estimated requirement of 4,000 officers for Pakistani armed forces, only 2,300 were actually available. The neutral British officers were asked to fill in the gap and nearly 500 volunteered as well as many Polish and Hungarian officers to run the medical corps.^[5]

By October 1947, Pakistan had raised four divisions in West Pakistan and one division in East Pakistan with an overall strength of ten infantry brigades and one armored brigade with thirteen tanks. Many brigades and battalions within these divisions were below half strength, but Pakistani personnel continued to arrive from all over India, the Middle East and North Africa and from South East Asia. Mountbatten and Supreme Commander Claude Auchinleck had made it clear to Pakistan that in case of war with India, no other member of the Commonwealth would come to Pakistan's help.

[edit] The war of 1947

Main article: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

Area shaded in Green is Pakistani controlled Kashmir and area shaded in Orange is Indian controlled Kashmir and the remainder is under Chinese control.

Pakistan had its first taste of war almost immediately in the First Kashmir War where it attacked India on the issue of Kashmir. Kashmir, had a Muslim majority population, but the choice of which country to join was given to the Hindu Maharaja of Kashmir who decided to accede into India. Fearing that India would take over Kashmir, the newly created Pakistani Army initially sent in regulars and pro-Pakistani tribal groups. Later, regular army units in large numbers joined the invasion but were pushed back by the Indians but not before occupying the northwestern part of Kashmir (roughly 40% of Kashmir) which Pakistan still controls, the rest remaining under Indian control except for the portion ceded by Pakistan to China

[edit] 1947-1958

With the failure of the United States to persuade India to join an anti-communist pact, it turned towards Pakistan which in contrast with India was prepared to join such an alliance in return of military and economic aid and also to find a potential ally against India. By 1954, the Americans had decided that Pakistan along with Turkey and Iran would be ideal countries to counter Soviet influence. Therefore Pakistan and USA signed the Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement and American aid began to flow in Pakistan. This was followed by two more agreements. In 1955, Pakistan joined the South East Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) and the Baghdad Pact later to be renamed as Central Asian Treaty Organization (CENTO) after Iraq left in 1959.^[6]

Pakistan received over a billion dollars in military aid from United States between 1954 and 1965. This aid greatly enhanced Pakistan’s defense capability as new equipment and weapons were brought into the armed forces, new military bases were created and existing ones were expanded and upgraded and two new Corps commands were formed. Shahid M Amin, who has previously served in the Pakistani foreign service, writes in his book Pakistan's foreign policy: A reappraisal that "It is also a fact, that these pacts did undoubtedly secure very substantial US military and economic assistance for Pakistan in its nascent years and significantly strengthened it in facing India, as seen in the 1965 war.""^[7]

American and British advisers trained Pakistani personnel and the USA was allowed to set up bases within Pakistan’s borders to spy on the Soviet Union. In this period, many future Pakistani presidents and generals went to American and British military academies that lead to the development of the Pakistani army on Western models, especially the British one.

After Dominion status ended in 1956 with the formation of a Constitution and a declaration of Pakistan as an Islamic Republic, the military took control in 1958 and held power for more than 10 years. During this time, Pakistan had developed close military relations with many Middle Eastern countries to whom Pakistan sent military advisers and this relationship continues to the present day.

[edit] Martial law (1958-1971)

Field Marshal Ayub Khan became the leader of Pakistan and during his reign, relations with the United States and the West grew stronger. A formal alliance including Pakistan, Iran, Iraq, and Turkey was formed and was called the Baghdad Pact (later known as CENTO), which was to defend the Middle East and Persian Gulf from Soviet designs.

After the indecisive war of 1965, many people accused Ayub Khan of betraying the cause of Kashmir and he was forced to resign. He was replaced by the army chief of staff, Yahya Khan in 1969.

Yahya Khan presided over the disastrous 1971 War which resulted in the army being forced out of Pakistani politics and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto becoming the new civilian leader of Pakistan following an election.

[edit] Pakistan-Afghanistan border clash of 1961

Armed tribal incursions from Afghanistan into Pakistan’s border areas began with the transfer of power in 1947 and became a continual irritant. Many Afghans regarded the 19th century Anglo-Afghan border treaties as void and were trying to re-draw the borders with Pakistan or trying to help create an independent state (Pashtunistan) for the ethnic Pashtun people. The Pakistan Army had to be continually sent to secure the country’s western borders. Afghan-Pakistan relations were to reach their nadir in 1955 when diplomatic relations were severed with the ransacking of Pakistan’s embassy in Kabul and again in 1961 when the Pakistan Army had to repel a major Afghan incursion in Bajaur region.^[3]

Pakistan used American weaponry to fight the Afghan incursions but the weaponry had been sold under the pretext of fighting Communism and the USA was not pleased with this development, as the Soviets at that time became the chief benefactor to Afghanistan. Some sections of the American press blamed Pakistan for driving Afghanistan into the Soviet camp.

[edit] 1962-1965

After India’s defeat in the Sino-Indian War of 1962, India began a rapid program of reforming and expanding its military. A series of conferences on Kashmir was held from December 1962 to February 1963 between India and Pakistan. Both nations offered important concessions and a solution to the long-standing dispute seemed imminent. However, after the Sino-Indian war, Pakistan had gained an important new ally in China and Pakistan then signed a bilateral border agreement with China that involved the boundaries of the disputed state, and relations with India again became strained.

Fearing a communist expansion into India, the USA for the first time gave large quantities of weapons to India. The expansion of the Indian armed forces was viewed by most Pakistanis as being directed towards Pakistan rather than China. The US also pumped in large sums of money and military supplies to Pakistan as it saw Pakistan as being a check against Soviet expansionist plans.^[8]

[edit] The war of 1965

Main article: Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

In Pakistan, after the Sino-Indian War in 1962, the military of India was seen as being weakened. This analysis was proven true when a small border skirmish occurred between India and Pakistan in the Rann of Kutch on April 1965 where the Indian Army was caught unprepared. The skirmish occurred between the border police of both countries due to poorly defined borders and later the Armies of both countries responded. The result was a decisive one for the Pakistan Army that was praised back home. Emboldened by this success, Operation Gibraltar, a covert infiltration attempt in Kashmir was launched later in the year. The plan was to start a rebellion among local Kashmiris and attack the rebuilding Indian Army thus capturing Kashmir by force, as the Pakistan Army Command believed that it had a qualitative superiority over their neighbours. However this proved over-ambitious as Indian Kashmiris did not support the intruding Pakistan Army and a full-fledged war across the international border (the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965) broke out between India and Pakistan. Despite the impressive performance of the Pakistan Air Force against their Indian counterparts,^[9] the Army could not achieve the goal of taking over Indian controlled Kashmir.

US had imposed an arms embargo on both India and Pakistan during the war and Pakistan was hurt more by the arms embargo as it had no spare parts for its Air Force, tanks, and other equipment while India's quantitative edge was taking a heavy toll on the Pakistan Army. With no spare parts to fix its damaged forces and as the theatre of war spread to the plains of western India, Pakistan lost the initiative and the war ended in a ceasefire. The Pakistani Defence Journal remarked that the war was a failure since the strategic objective of the war that Pakistan had initiated, namely the liberation of Kashmir was not achieved, resulting in a psychological gain for India.^[10]

[edit] 1965-1971

The United States was disillusioned by a war in which both countries fought each other with equipment, which had been sold for defensive purposes and to stop the spread of communism. Pakistan’s claims that an Indian attempt to fully integrate Indian Controlled Kashmir into the union of India had compelled it to act fell on deaf ears in the Johnson Administration and by July 1967, the United States withdrew its military assistance advisory group. In response to these events, Pakistan declined to renew the lease on the Peshawar military facility, which ended in 1969. Eventually, United States-Pakistan relations grew measurably weaker as the United States became more deeply involved in Vietnam and as its broader interest in the security of South Asia waned.^[11]

The Soviet Union continued the massive build-up of the Indian military and a US arms embargo forced Pakistan to look at other options. It turned to China, North Korea, Germany, Italy and France for military aid. China in particular gave Pakistan over 900 tanks, Mig-19 Fighters and enough equipment to fully equip 3 Infantry divisions. France supplied some Mirage aircraft, submarines and even the Soviet Union gave Pakistan around 100 T-55 tanks, Mi-8 helicopters but that aid was abruptly stopped under intense Indian pressure. Pakistan in this period was partially able to enhance its military capability .

[edit] The war of 1971

Main articles: Bangladesh Liberation War and Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

Faced with popular unrest and revolt in East Pakistan, the Army clamped down through violence. "Kill three million of them" said General Yahya Khan, "and the rest will eat out of our hands". The army crackdown and brutalities during the Operation Searchlight and the continued killings throughout the later months resulted in further resentment among the Bengalis of East Pakistan. With India assisting the Mukti Bahini, war broke out between the separatist supporters in Bangladesh and Pakistan(Indo-Pakistani War of 1971). The result was the Pakistan Army's surrender to the Indian forces upon which 45,000 Pakistani soldiers and 45,000 militants became POWs, the largest since World War II. The official war between India and Pakistan ended in just a fortnight on December 16, 1971, with Pakistan losing East Pakistan which became Bangladesh.

The official Bangladesh Government claim puts the number of Bengali civilian fatalities at 3 million. However, other sources^[12] estimate the number to be between 300,000 and 1.5 million.

[edit] 1971-1977

Pakistan’s defense spending rose by 200% during the Bhutto era but the military balance between India-Pakistan which was at a rough parity during the 1960s was growing decisively in India’s favor. The United States once again became a major source for military hardware following the lifting of the arms embargo in 1975 but by then Pakistan had become heavily dependent on China as an arms supplier. Heavy spending on defense re-energized the Army, which had sunk to its lowest morale following the debacle of the 1971 war. The high defense expenditure took money from other development projects such as education, health care and housing.

[edit] Baloch Nationalist uprisings (1973-1978)

The Baloch rebellion of the 1970s, was the most threatening civil disorder to a United Pakistan since Bangladesh's secession. The Pakistan Army wanted to establish military garrisons in Balochistan which at that time was quite lawless and run by tribal justice. The ethnic Balochis saw this as a violation of their territorial rights. Emboldened by the stand taken by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1971, the Baloch and Pashtun nationalists had also demanded their "provincial rights" from then Prime Minister of Pakistan Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in exchange for a consensual approval of the Pakistan Constitution of 1973. But while Bhutto admitted the NWFP and Balochistan to a NAP-JUI coalition, he refused to negotiate with the provincial governments led by chief minister Ataullah Mengal in Quetta and Mufti Mahmud in Peshawar. Tensions erupted.

Surveying the political instability, Bhutto's central government sacked two provincial governments within six months, arrested the two chief ministers, two governors and forty-four MNAs and MPAs, obtained an order from the Supreme Court banning the NAP and charged them all with high treason , to be tried by a specially constituted Hyderabad Tribunal of handpicked judges. In time, a Baloch nationalist insurgency erupted and sucked the army into the province, pitting the Baloch tribal middle classes against Islamabad. The sporadic fighting between the insurgency and the army started in 1973 with the largest confrontation taking place in September 1974 when around 15,000 Balochs fought the Pakistani Army and the Air Force. The Iranian military fearing a spread of the greater Baloch resistance in Iran also aided the Bhutto-sent Pakistan military in brutally putting down the insurrection.^[13] After three days of fighting the Baloch tribals were running out of ammunition and so withdrew by 1976. The army had suffered 25 fatalities and around 300 casualties in the fight while the rebels lost 5,000 people as of 1977.

Although major fighting had broken down, ideological schisms caused splinter groups to form and steadily gain momentum. Despite the overthrow of the Bhutto government in 1977 by General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, calls for secession and widespread civil disobedience remained. The military government then appointed General Rahimuddin Khan as Martial Law Administrator and Governor over the province. The provincial government under the famously authoritarian Rahimuddin began to act as a separate entity and military regime independent of the central government.

This allowed General Rahimuddin to act as a dictator, unanswerable to the central government. Both General Zia-ul-Haq and General Rahimuddin Khan supported the declaration of a general amnesty in Balochistan to those willing to give up arms. Rahimuddin then purposefully isolated feudal leaders such as Nawab Akbar Khan Bugti and Ataullah Mengal from provincial policy. He also militarily put down all civil disobedience movements, effectively leading to unprecedented social stability within the province. Due to Martial Law, his reign was the longest in the history of Balochistan (1977 - 1984).

Tensions have resurfaced recently in the province with the Pakistan Army being involved in attacks against an insurgency known as the Balochistan Liberation Army. Attempted uprisings have taken place as recently as 2005.^[14]

[edit] Martial law (1977-1985) and military dictatorship (1977-1988)

During the 1977 elections, there were rumors of wide spread voter fraud and as such the civilian government under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was overthrown in a bloodless coup (July 1977) and the new ruler General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq became President of Pakistan in 1978. Bhutto was executed in 1979 after the Supreme Court upheld the High Court's death sentence on charges of authorizing the murder of a political opponent.^[15] Under Zia's Martial Law military dictatorship (which was declared legal under the Doctrine of Necessity by the Supreme Court in 1978) the following initiatives were taken:

• Strict Islamic law was introduced into the country's legal system by 1978, contributing to current-day sectarianism and religious fundamentalism, as well as instilling a sense of religious purpose within the youth.
• Pakistan fought a war by proxy against the Communists in Afghanistan in the Soviet-Afghan War, greatly contributing to the eventual withdrawal of Soviet forces from Afghanistan.
• Secessionist uprisings in Balochistan were put down by the province's authoritarian Martial Law ruler, General Rahimuddin Khan, who ruled for an unprecedented seven years under Martial Law.
• The socialist economic policies of the previous civilian government, which also included aggressive nationalisation, were gradually reversed; and Pakistan's Gross National Product rose greatly to be among the highest in the world.

General Zia lifted Martial Law in 1985, holding party-less elections and handpicking Muhammad Khan Junejo to be the Prime Minister of Pakistan, who in turn rubber-stamped Zia remaining Chief of Army Staff until 1990. Junejo however gradually fell out with Zia as his political and administrative independence grew. Junejo also signed the Geneva Accord, which Zia greatly disliked. After a large-scale explosion at a munitions store in Ojhri, Junejo vowed to bring those responsible for the significant damage caused to justice, implicating several times the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) Director-General Akhtar Abdur Rahman.

President Zia, infuriated, dismissed the Junejo government on several charges in May 1988. He then called for the holding of fresh elections in November. General Zia-ul-Haq never saw the elections materialize however, as he died in a plane crash on August 17, 1988, which was later proven to be highly sophisticated sabotage by unknown perpetrators.

Under Zia, real defence spending increased on average by 9 percent per annum during 1977-88 while development spending rose 3 percent per annum; by 1987-88 defence spending had overtaken development spending. For 1980s as a whole, defence spending averaged 6.5 percent of GDP. This contributed strongly to large fiscal deficits and a rapid build up of public debt.^[16]

[edit] Soviet-Afghan war (1979-1989)

Main article: Soviet war in Afghanistan

See also: Operation Cyclone

During the Soviet occupation of neighbouring Afghanistan, the alliance between USA and Pakistan was greatly strengthened as the USA needed Pakistan as a staging area from which to send weapons to the Mujahideens who were fighting the Soviets. Apprehensive of the threats on two front to Pakistan from India and from Soviet occupied Afghanistan, the USA in 1981 offered a military aid package of over $1.5 billion which included 40 F-16 fighters, 100 M-48 tanks, nearly 200 artillery guns and over 1,000 TOW anti-tank missiles which considerably enhanced Pakistan's defence capability. During the course of the war, Pakistan experienced several air intrusions by Afghan/Soviet pilots and claims to shooting down about 8 Afghan/Soviet aircraft over the years as well as losing one F-16 from its own fleet.^[17]

The Pakistani Military, aided by the United States and financed by Saudi Arabia, began helping the Mujahideen in setting up training camps and arming them. United States President Jimmy Carter had accepted the view that Soviet aggression could not be viewed as an isolated event of limited geographical importance but had to be contested as a potential threat to the Persian Gulf region. The uncertain scope of the final objective of Moscow in its sudden southward plunge made the American stake in an independent Pakistan all the more important.

Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence and Special Service Group now became actively involved in the conflict against the Soviets. Pakistan's SSG created a unit called the Black Storks who were SSG men dressed as Afghan Mujahideen during the Soviet-Afghan war. They were then flown into Afghanistan and provided the Mujahideen with support. After Ronald Reagan became the new United States President in 1980, aid for the Mujahideen through Zia's Pakistan significantly increased. In retaliation, the KHAD, under Afghan leader Mohammad Najibullah, carried out (according to the Mitrokhin archives and other sources) a large number of terrorist operations against Pakistan, which also suffered from an influx of weaponry and drugs from Afghanistan. Pakistan also took in 3 million Afghan refugees (mostly Pashtun) who were forced to leave their country due to heavy fighting including genocide by the communist forces of Soviet Union. Although the refugees were controlled within Pakistan's largest province, Balochistan, then under martial law ruler General Rahimuddin Khan, the influx of so many refugees - believed to be the largest refugee population in the world^[18] - into several other regions had a heavy impact on Pakistan and its effects continue to this day.

PLO and Lebanese weapons captured by the Israelis in their invasion of Lebanon in June 1982 were of Soviet origin and were then covertly transferred into Afghanistan through Pakistan. Later, when American support for the Mujahideen became obvious, Stinger Missiles and other high-technology American weaponry were transferred through Pakistan into Afghanistan. However some of these weapons may have been siphoned off by the ISI for reverse engineering purposes. The arrival of the new high-technology weaponry proved to be quite helpful in organizing stiff resistance against the Soviet Union. Many Army regulars fought in Afghanistan along with the resistance and were partly instrumental in the withdrawal of Soviet forces from Afghanistan in 1989.

[edit] Kashmir operations (1984-present)

[edit] Siachen Glacier

After the 1971 war, another border flare-up occurred between India and Pakistan in 1984. The area of the dispute was the Siachen Glacier - the world's highest battlefield. The Glacier was under territorial dispute, but in the late 1970s and early 1980s, Pakistan began organizing several tourist expeditions to the Glacier. India, irked by this development, mounted Operation Meghdoot, and captured the top of the Glacier by establishing a military base which it still maintains to this day at a cost of more than US$1 million per day.^[19] Pakistan on the other hand spends just under US$1 million per day, though as a percentage of GDP Pakistan spends 5 times as the Indian Military does to maintain its share of the glacier.^[20] Pakistan tried in 1987 and in 1989 to retake the whole Glacier but was unsuccessful. A stalemate has arisen where India controls the top part of the glacier and Pakistan the bottom.

[edit] Aiding Kashmir separatists

Pakistan has maintained that when it comes to dealing with the Kashmiri separatists, they have always provided moral support whereas India maintaines that Pakistan provides military support to separatists. Indian premiers Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi both alleged throughout the 1980s that General Zia-ul-Haq diverted excess financial aid for the Mujahideen fighting in the Soviet-Afghan War to the Kashmiri insurgency, as well as that Pakistan trained India-destabilizing Sikh terrorists under General Zia.

[edit] Kargil war (April 1999 - July 1999)

Main article: Kargil War

After the failure of the 1989 attempt to re-take the glacier, a new and much more daring plan was developed by the Pakistan Army to re-take the glacier by blocking the Indian supplies reaching the Indian base at the top of the glacier. The plan was ready in the late 1980s but was put on hold due to the fear that this operation could lead to an all out war with India. Pakistan had recently been placed under US military sanctions for developing Nuclear weapons and the Pakistani military hierarchy believed that they did not have the proper military deterrent if the situation escalated into an all out war with India.

In the winter of 1998, a modified version of the plan was approved due to the fact that months earlier both India and Pakistan had conducted nuclear tests. Pakistan believed that it now had a deterrent to prevent all out war with India and believed that once it had taken the Kargil hills, the international community, fearing a nuclear war, would urge a secession of hostilities. Pakistan would emerge with an improved tactical advantage along the LOC and bring the Siachen Glacier conflict to the forefront of international resolution.

Some elements of the Pakistani SSG Commandos, Northern Light Infantry Forces as well as Indian Kashmiri militants planned to take over the abandoned Indian bunkers on various hills that overlooked the vital Srinagar-Leh highway that serviced the logistics base from which supplies were ferried through helicopter to the Indian Army at the top of the Siachen Glacier. The Indian Army routinely abandoned the bunkers in the winter due to the cold and snow and re-occupied them in the spring.

The Pakistani backed forces took over the bunker complex around April and May 1999 but the winter snows had melted earlier than usual and an Indian reconnaissance team which was sent to inspect the bunkers was wiped out by them. The Indian Army, alerted to the presence of these militants, responded quickly, forcefully and massed a huge force of around 30,000 men to re-take the Kargil hills. The Pakistani backed forces were detected very early in the operation and were not adequately prepared as they still needed another month or so before they properly established themselves on the Kargil hills, as they were short on heavy weaponry, ammunition, food, shelter, and medicine.

The Kargil War lasted for around eight weeks and both sides suffered casualties. After suffering reverses and heavy international pressure to withdraw and end the conflict, primarily from the USA, the Pakistani backed forces withdrew by July 1999.

[edit] 1989-1999

[edit] Development of nuclear weapons

In 1972, Pakistani intelligence learned that India was close to developing a nuclear bomb. Partially in response, defence spending under then-Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto increased by 200 percent. The foundations were laid down to develop a military nuclear capability. This includes the nuclear fuel cycle and nuclear weapons design, development and testing programme. The fuel cycle program included the uranium exploration, mining, refining, coversion and Uranium Hexafluoride (UF6) production, enrichment and fuel fabrication and reprocessing facilities. These facilities were established in the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) by chairman Mr. Munir Ahmad Khan. Bhutto had appointed Munir Khan, a nuclear engineer, who till then was serving as Director of Nuclear Power and Reactors,IAEA, as PAEC chairman on January 20, 1972, at the Multan Conference of senior scientists. He was credited to be the technical "father" of Pakistan's atomic bomb by a recent International Institute of Strategic Studies, London, (IISS) Dossier on Pakistan's nuclear programme. After General Zia-ul-Haq came to power, further advancements were made to enrich uranium and consolidate the nuclear programme. On March 11, 1983, PAEC carried out the first successful cold test of a working nuclear device. By the late 1980s, it was common knowledge that Pakistan had developed nuclear weaponry. To compound further matters, the Soviet Union had withdrawn from Afghanistan and the strategic importance of Pakistan to the USA was gone. Once the full extent of Pakistan's nuclear weapons programme was revealed, economic sanctions were imposed on the country by several other countries. Having been developed under both Bhutto and Zia, the nuclear programme had fully matured by the late 1980s. Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, a metallurgical engineer, greatly contributed to the uranium enrichment programme under both governments, and is generally considered to be the founder of Pakistan's uranium enrichment programme. By 1986 PAEC chairman Munir Ahmad Khan had begun work on the 50 MW plutonium and tritium production reactor at Khushab which became operational by 1998. After India successfully tested 5 nuclear missiles underground in 1998, Pakistan under Nawaz Sharif, to the distaste of the international community, successfully carried out six underground nuclear tests, proving Pakistan's nuclear capability. These tests were carried out by the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission.

[edit] US sanctions

U.S. Senator Pressler, introduced the Pressler Amendment which imposed an embargo on all economical and military aid to Pakistan for developing nuclear weapons.^[21] This whole episode caused very negative publicity in Pakistan towards the USA as many people in Pakistan as well as the military believed they had risked a great deal in helping the USA give the Soviet Union its own Vietnam in Afghanistan and when the task was done, Pakistan was promptly abandoned.^[22] Pakistan was hosting a very large Afghan refugee population and drugs from Afghanistan had infiltrated Pakistan and the use of heroin was growing to be a very widespread problem that further compounded the situation.

The embargo continued for five years and in 1995, the Brown Amendment authorised a one-time delivery of US military equipment, contracted for prior to October 1990, worth US$368 million. However, the additional 28 F-16 aircraft costing US$658 million and already paid for by Pakistan were not delivered. Unable to purchase American or NATO weaponry, Pakistan tried to develop an indigenous weapons industry, which has yielded some successes such as the development of the Al-Khalid Tank and JF-17 Strike Fighter.

[edit] Taliban takeover of Afghanistan

After the Soviet withdrawal, Pakistan for the first time since 1947, was not concerned about a threat on two fronts. Further, the emergence of five independent Muslim republics in Central Asia raised hopes that they might become allies and offer Pakistan both the political support and the strategic depth it lacked. As long as Afghanistan was in chaos, Pakistan would lack direct access to the new republics.

Fighting between the Communist government in Kabul and the Mujahideen forces continued until 1992 when the Mujahideen forces, led by Ahmed Shah Massoud, removed the Soviet-backed government of Mohammad Najibullah. By 1993, the rival factions who were vying for power agreed on the formation of a government with Burhanuddin Rabbani as president, but infighting continued. Lawlessness was rampant and became a major hindrance to trade between Pakistan and the newly independent Central Asian states. Pakistan appointed the Taliban to protect its trade convoys because most of the Taliban were Pashtun and were trained by the ISI and CIA in the 1980s and could be trusted by Pakistan.^[23] With Pakistan's backing, the Taliban emerged as one of the strongest factions in Afghanistan. Pakistan then decided to the end the infighting in Afghanistan and backed the Taliban in their takeover of Afghanistan to bring stability to its western border and establish a pro-Pakistan regime in Kabul.

Pakistan solicited funds for the Taliban, bankrolled Taliban operations, providing diplomatic support as the Taliban's virtual emissaries abroad, arranged training for Taliban fighters, recruited skilled and unskilled manpower to serve in Taliban armies, planned and directed offensives, providing and facilitating shipments of ammunition and fuel, and on several occasions senior Pakistani military and intelligence officers help planned and execute major military operations.^[24] By September 1996, the Taliban under the leadership of Mullah Muhammad Omar seized control of Kabul. However, the stability in Afghanistan led to Osama bin Laden and Zawahiri to come to Afghanistan which caused the Talbian to implement a very strict interpretation of Islamic law. The Taliban continued to capture more Afghan territory until by 2001 they controlled 90% of the country.^[23]

[edit] Military Takeover (1999-2001)

See: 1999 Pakistani coup d'état

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Gen. Peter Pace (center), U.S. Marine Corps, reviews the Pakistani Honor Guard upon his arrival at the Joint Forces Command in Islamabad, Pakistan, on March 20, 2006. Since 9/11, Pakistan and USA have established close military ties.

Many people in Pakistan blamed Sharif for retreating from Kargil under American pressure. Growing fiscal deficits and debt-service payments mainly due to American sanctions after Pakistan tested its Nuclear Weapons in May 1998 as a response to India had led to a financial crisis. When asked about his reason for backing down from Kargil, Sharif said that Pakistan had only enough fuel and ammunition for 3 days and the nuclear missiles were not ready. This comment made many Pakistanis brand Nawaz Sharif a traitor as Army doctrine called for having at least 45 days of fuel and ammunition and to have stand by nuclear missiles ready.

Fearing that the Army might take over, Sharif attempted to dismiss the head of the Pakistan military, General Pervez Musharraf and install ISI director Ziauddin Butt in his place. Musharraf, who was out of the country, boarded a commercial flight to return to Pakistan. Senior Army generals refused to accept Musharraf's dismissal. Sharif ordered the Karachi airport to prevent the landing of the aeroplane, which then circled the skies over Karachi. In a coup d'état, the generals ousted Sharif's administration and took over the airport. The plane landed with only a few minutes of fuel to spare, and Musharraf assumed control of the government. Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif was put under house arrest and later exiled.

The coup d'état in Pakistan was condemned by most world leaders but was mostly supported by Pakistani populace.^[25] The new military government of Pervez Musharraf was heavily criticized in the USA and when President Bill Clinton went on his landmark trip to South Asia, he only made a last minute stop in Pakistan for a few hours but spent more than five days touring and visiting India.^[26] Pakistan was also suspended from the Commonwealth while Musharraf pledged to clean corruption out of politics and stabilise the economy.

[edit] Conflict in Tribal Agencies (2001-Present)

See: Waziristan War

After the 9/11 attacks, Pakistan joined the US-led War on Terror and helped the U.S. Military by severing ties with the Taliban and immediately deploying 72,000 troops along Pakistan's western border to capture or kill Taliban and al-Qaida militants fleeing from Afghanistan. The military continues to conduct operations against these foreign and local militants, especially around the Waziristan area.

The world has praised the Pakistani government's crackdown on extremism and terrorism. Pakistan was re-admitted to the Commonwealth and was declared a major non-NATO ally in 2004 and as a result of this is included in large defense deals with NATO and the USA.

General Pervez Musharraf has pledged to step down from his role as head of the military of Pakistan in 2007 and to hold democratic elections.^[27]

[edit] UN peacekeeping missions

Main article: Military of Pakistan - United Nations Peacekeeping missions

[edit] Participation in foreign conflicts

[edit] Six-Day War

Main article: Six-Day War

Pakistan had sent numerous military advisers to Jordan and Syria to help in their training and military preparations for the coming war with Israel. When the war started Pakistan sent a contingent of its pilots and airmen to Egypt, Jordan and Syria. PAF pilots performed excellently and downed about 10 Israeli planes including Mirages, Mysteres, Vautours without losing a single plane of their own.^[17]

Jordan and Iraq decorated Pakistani Flight Lieutenant Saif-ul-Azam. Israelis praised the performance of PAF pilots too. Eizer Weizman, then Chief Of Israeli Air Force wrote in his autobiography about Air Marshal Noor Khan (Commander PAF at that time): "...He is a formidable person and I am glad that he is Pakistani not Egyptian..."^[29] No Pakistani ground forces participated in the war.

[edit] Yemeni civil war

Main article: North Yemen Civil War

In 1969, South Yemen, which was under a communist regime and a strong ally of the USSR, attacked and captured Mount Vadiya inside the province of Sharoora in Saudi Arabia. Many PAF officers as well Army personnel who were serving in Khamis Mushayt (the closest airbase to the battlefield), took active part in this battle in which the enemy was ultimately driven back.^[30]

[edit] Black September in Jordan

Main article: Black September in Jordan

After the end of the Six-Day War, Pakistani advisors had remained in Jordan and were training the Jordanian Forces. In 1970, King Hussein of Jordan decided to remove the PLO and its forces from Jordan by force after a series of terrorist acts attributed to the PLO which undermined Jordanian sovereignty. On September 16, King Hussein declared martial law. The next day, Jordanian tanks attacked the headquarters of Palestinian organizations in Amman. The head of Pakistani training mission to Jordan, Brigadier Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq (later President of Pakistan), took command of the Jordanian Army's 2nd division and helped Jordan during this crisis.

[edit] Yom Kippur War

Main article: Yom Kippur War

During the Yom Kippur War, sixteen PAF pilots volunteered for service in the Air Forces of Egypt and Syria. The PAF contingent deployed to Inchas Air Base (Egypt) led by Wing Commander Masood Hatif and five other pilots plus two air defence controllers. During this war, the Syrian government decorated Flight Lieutenant Sattar Alvi when he shot down an Israeli Mirage over the Golan Heights.^[30]The PAF pilots then became instructors in the Syrian Air Force at Dumayr Air Base and after the war Pakistan continued to send military advisers to Syria and Jordan. Apart from military advisers, no Pakistani ground forces participated in this war.

[edit] Sri Lankan civil war

Main article: Sri Lankan civil war

Pakistan and Sri Lanka enjoy a strong relationship and Pakistan International Airlines planes ferrying Pakistan Army reinforcements to East Pakistan, now Bangladesh, refueled in Colombo after India denied Pakistan overflight permissions before the actual outbreak of the Indo-Pakistan war of 1971. Pakistan has send military advisors, ammunition and other equipment to Sri Lanka during previous offensives against the LTTE. Many Sri Lankan officers are trained in Pakistan. While Pakistan has said that the conflict in Sri Lanka is an internal matter, the LTTE accuse Pakistan of directly getting involved in the conflict.^[31]

[edit] Gulf War

Main article: Gulf War

The Pakistani government joined the international community in condemning the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Pakistan also joined the Coalition forces to expel Saadam Hussein's forces from Kuwait. However that was not an easy decision as the CoAS of the Pakistani Army was against sending Pakistani soldiers to fight the fellow Muslim nation of Iraq. This caused a rare strain in the relationship between Saudi Arabia and Pakistan. Later on, Pakistan agreed to send forces to assist the coalition forces and most of these forces were deployed along the Saudi border with Yemen, which sided with Iraq during the conflict, and Pakistani forces were also stationed around various religious sites throughout Saudi Arabia. Pakistan suffered no casualties in the conflict and later joined the UN in rebuilding Kuwait's destroyed infrastructure.

[edit] Famous Soldiers and Units

[edit] Famous Units

• 25th Cavalry, Known as the "Men of Steel"; this regiment was distinguished itself during the crucial early hours of the Battle of Chawinda when it engaged and drove off a much larger force.
• PNS Hangor, A submarine which made the first submarine kill since World War II when it sunk the Indian Frigate, INS Khurki.

• 9 Heavy Regiment (Artillery) "GHAZIAN-E-CHAJJA",First artillery unit of Pakistan after independence acquired first "Sitara-e-Jurat" in 1949. This unit was awarded with "LAHORE 1971" as a Battle honour for its excellent performance in war zone.

• 4 Sind Regiment. For its outstanding performance in the Siachen sector.

[edit] Famous Personnel

• Ayub Khan, self-appointed Field Marshal during the mid-1960s, and the military ruler of Pakistan from 1958 to 1969.
• Yahya Khan, the President of Pakistan and Chief of Army Staff from 1969 to 1971. His rule was characterized by tensions in East Pakistan in the early 1970s that finally led to its secession following the Bangladesh Liberation War.
• Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, Chief of Army Staff and President of Pakistan, following the overthrow of civilian government, from 1977 to 1988. His rule is the longest to date in the history of Pakistan, characterized by the introduction of controversially strict Islamic law, the successful rejuvenation of the economy, and the fighting of a war by proxy against the superpower USSR during the Soviet-Afghan War.
• Rahimuddin Khan, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee and Martial Law Governor of Balochistan and Sindh who is generally credited with stabilizing the secession-threatening Balochistan insurgency during his dictatorial tenure from 1978 to 1984.
• A.O. Mitha, founder of Pakistan's Special Services Group (SSG).
• General Akhtar Abdur Rahman, Director of ISI and administrative fighter of the Afghan jihad against the Soviets. Also famed for being kleptocratic.
• Aziz Bhatti, died defending the approaches to the city of Lahore from the Indian Army in 1965 and earned the Nishan-E-Haider for his valour.
• Muhammad Sarwar, fought and died in the war of 1947 and earned the Nishan-E-Haider for his valour.
• Akbar Khan, helped quell the Baloch insurgency of 1948 and was involved in the Rawalpindi Conspiracy Case.
• General A. A. K. Niazi, Pakistani military commander who surrendered to Indian forces in the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War.
• Rao Farman Ali, architect of the plan to quell the Bengali uprisings in East Pakistan.
• Rashid Minhas, crashed his own plane rather than land in India after his plane was taken over by a Bengali pilot and earned the Nishan-E-Haider for his valour.
• Sahabzada Yaqub Khan, distinguished diplomat and career military officer
• Lalak Jan Shaheed, fought in the Kargil War of 1999 and earned the Nishan-E-Haider for defending his post and driving back numerous Indian attacks.
• Siddique Saliq, who was a Brigadier known for personal incorruptablity, was the trusted confidant of General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq who was also on board fatal air-crash in 1988 caused by sabotage.
• Pervez Musharraf, former Chief of Army Staff who ousted Nawaz Sharif in 1999 in a military takeover. Currently serves as a civilian President of Pakistan.
• Ashfaq Pervez Kayani, named as one of the most influential people in the world by Time 100. Is the current Chief of Army Staff of Pakistan, one of the country's most powerful positions.

[edit] See also

• Indo-Pakistani Wars
• Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction

[edit] Notes

[edit] Further reading

• Brian Cloughley (2001). A History of the Pakistan Army. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-579507-5. 
• Stephen P. Cohen (1998). The Pakistan Army. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-577948-7. 
• Jessica Stern and Hassan Abbas (2004). Pakistan's Drift Into Extremism: Allah, The Army, And America's War On Terror. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-1497-9. 
• Gul Hassan Khan (1994). Memoirs of Lt. Gen. Gul Hassan Khan : (The Last Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army) (The Last Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-577447-7. 

[edit] External links

• Pakistan Military Guide
• Fifty Years of the Pakistan Army
• The Evolution of The Pakistan Army

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