Makurakotoba
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The makurakotoba (枕詞?), literally meaning "pillow word", are Japanese standard epithets used in association with a specific words. Their usage is akin to “grey-eyed Athena” of the Greek literature or ‘white as snow’ in English metaphors. The set phrase serves as a “pillow” for the noun it describes. The description appeals usually to a sound or sense, but can be more complicated in meaning. Most are 5 syllables in length; this supports the theory that the makurakotoba were used for their rhythmic value, setting up the 5/7/5/7/7 phrase work that characterizes much of waka (poetry), as well as for their imagery and artistic styling. The makurakotoba brings a great depth and richness to the otherwise spare style. A poet's usage of the makurakotoba actively reinforces Japanese traditions with every use, giving recognition to all the previous works a specific makurakotoba was used. Thus, a poet's use of a makurakotoba demonstrates their knowledge of Japan's poetic past.
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[edit] History And Usage
Makurakotoba first appears in the Man'yōshū and when it is included in later poetry, it is used to make allusions to poems in the Man'yōshū. Japanese poets use makurakotoba to refer to earlier poems and show their knowledge of poetry and the imperial poetry collections.
While some makurakotoba still have meanings that add to the meaning of the proceeding word, many others have lost their meanings. As the makurakotoba became standardized and used as a way to follow Japanese poetic traditions, many were used only as decorative phrases in poems and not for their meanings. Many translators of waka poems have a difficult time with the makurakotoba because although the makurakotoba makes up the first line, many makurakotoba have no substantial meaning, and it is impossible to discard the whole first line of a waka.
[edit] Examples
There are many instances of makurakotobas found in the Man'yōshū . One of the very first poems in the collection demonstrates how the makurakotoba was used:
komo yo mikomochi
fukushimo yo mibukushimochi
kono oka ni na tsumasu ko
ie norase na norasane
soramitsu* Yamato no kuni wa
oshinabete ware koso ore
shikinabete ware koso imase
ware kosoba norame
ie o mo na o mo
Your basket, with your lovely basket
Your trowel, with your lovely trowel
girl, you who pick herbs on this hill,
speak of your house. Speak of your name.
In the Land of Yamato, seen from the sky*,
It is I who conquer and reign
It is I who conquer and rule.
Let it be me who speaks
of my house and my name.
source:Traditional Japanese Literature Translation from the Asian Classics. Man’yōshū (Collection of Myriad Leaves, CA.785) Introduction Duthie, Torquil. Ed Shirane, Harou. Columbia University Press: New York 2007. 60-63
- Soramitsu is used to modify the place “Yamato,” and means that it is seen from the sky.
There are several more examples available online. Some are listed below.
| Makurakotoba | Meaning | Modifies |
|---|---|---|
| Akane sasu | Shining madder red | Pi ‘sun,’ piru ‘daytime,’ kimi ‘lord’ |
| Asa mo yosi | Good hemp | Place name ‘Ki’ |
| Kakozimo no | A fawn | Hitori ko ‘single/only child’ |
| Kamikaze no | Divine wind | Place names such as ‘Ise,’ ‘Isuzu River’ |
| Komori ku no | Hidden Land | Place name ‘Hatsuse’ |
| Koto sapeku | Twittered words | Foregin place names such as China ‘kara,’ Korea ‘Kudara’ |
| Komo turugi | Korean sword | Place name ‘Wazami’ |
| Kusa makura | Grass pillow | Tabi ‘journey,’ musubu ‘tie,’ tuyu ‘dew’ |
| Mini no wata | Marsh (black) snail guts | Kagurosi ‘completely black’ |
| Momosiki no | Many stoned | Opomiya ‘great palace' |
| Parugasumi | Spring mist/haze | Kasuga, tatu ‘rise’ |
| Pi no moto no | Source of sun | Place name ‘Yamato’ |
| Sora mitsu | Sky seen | Place name ‘Yamato’ |
| Tamamo yosi | Good jeweled seaweed | Province ‘Sanuki’ |
| Takunapa No | A rope of hemp | Naga ‘long,’ tipiro ‘extremely long’ |
| Tamaginu no | Jeweled clothes | Sawisawi ‘rustling’ |
| Tama kiparu | Soul ending | Inochi ‘life,’ yo ‘world’ |
| Tama tasuki | Jeweled cord | Place name ‘Unebi,’ kakaru ‘attach’ |
| Tihayaburu | Powerful/mighty | Place name ‘Uji,’ kami ‘gods’ |
| Toki tu kaze | Seasonal/timely wind | Place name pukepi ‘Fukehi’ |
| Tomosibi no | Lamplight | Place name ‘Akashi’ |
| Tori ga naku | Bird calling | Aduma ‘the Eastland’ |
| Tumagomoru | Spouse hiding | Ya ‘home/roof,’ ya ‘arrow’ |
| Utiyosuru | Rush toward | Place name ‘Suruga’ |
source: http://temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/makurakotoba.shtml
[edit] Foreign Equivalences
The makurakotoba are commonly found in other languages under the category of “epithet”. There are different types of epithets, some as a standard epithet, some as a common epithet or a stock epithet. Most are not bound by a syllable-count.
In Persian texts, there are several epithets commonly used. Sraosha, the protector of ritual piece, possesses the common known epithet: “Sraoshaverez.” However, “darshi.dru-” meaning “of the strong (Ahuric) mace” is also used. The name Sraosha itself means fury, wrath, or rage. Aeshma, the demon of wrath, possesses the standard epithet “xrvi.dru-”, meaning “of the bloody mace.” Aeshma has other standard epithets that include “ill-fated,” “malignant,” and “possessing falsehood”. A stock epithet, “ashya,” is used to mean “companion of recompense” or “companion of Ashi”.
In the Old Testament, the epithet Baal or Tammuz is often used to mean “the delightful one.” When referring to a king, Persians would write the epithet “adh,” which in the sense of eternity meant “father of eternity”.
People today also use epithets without knowing. The phrases: rosy-fingered dawn, undying fame, everlasting glory, wine-red sea, heartfelt thanks, Miss Know-It-All, blood red sky, stone-cold heart, and names such as Richard the Lionheart, Alexander the Great, Catherine the Great, and Ivan the Terrible are only several examples of the many epithets used.
In Greek, the Homeric epithets are most commonly recognized. The article “L’Épithéte Traditionnelle dons Homére and les Formules etla Métrique d’Homére” by Milman Perry argues for Homer's use of formulaic epithets in the Greek epics. These epithets are arguably used formulaically much like the makurakotoba. Examples of Homeric epithets: swift-footed Achilles, crafty Aegisthus, wily Odysseus (or Odysseus of many wiles).
Another common epithet in the Greco-Roman epic is "pius Aeneas".
For more examples of Homeric epithets, follow the link.
[edit] See also
For more listings of makurakotoba:
http://www2.cs.uh.edu/~jackw/ojmakkot.htm [1]
http://temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/makurakotoba.shtml [2]
Dickens, Frederick Victor. Primitive and Mediaeval Japanese Texts. Clarendon Press: Oxford 1906. 257-278
[edit] References
Traditional Japanese Literature Translation from the Asian Classics.Man’yōshū (Collection of Myriad Leaves, CA.785) Introduction Duthie, Torquil. Ed Shirane, Harou. Columbia University Press: New York 2007. 60-63
2001 Waka for Japan. Thomas McAuley. [3]
The Man'yoshu. Kris Larsson. [4]
Keene, Donald. “Problems of Translating Decorative Language.” The Journal-Newsletter of the Association of Teachers of Japanese. Vol. 2, No. 1/2 (May 1964), 4-12. [5]
Machacek, Gregory. “The Occasional Contextual Appropriateness of Formulaix Diction in the Homeric Poems.” The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 115, No. 3. (Autumn, 1994), pp.321-335 [6]
Lowenstam, Steven. “Irus’ “Queenly” Mother and the Problem of the Irrational Use of Homeric Epithets.” Pacific Coast Philology, Vol. 16, No. 1. (Jun., 1981), pp.39-47 [7]
Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament – Google Book Search
by G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, Heinz-Josef Fabry [8]
