Magnetorheological fluid
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A magnetorheological fluid (MR fluid) is a type of smart fluid. It is a suspension of micrometer-sized magnetic particles in a carrier fluid, usually a type of oil. When subjected to a magnetic field, the fluid greatly increases its apparent viscosity, to the point of becoming a viscoelastic solid. Importantly, the yield stress of the fluid when in its active ("on") state can be controlled very accurately by varying the magnetic field intensity. The upshot of which is that the fluid's ability to transmit force can be controlled with an electromagnet, which gives rise to its many possible control-based applications.
It is important to note the difference between MR fluid and ferrofluid. MR fluid particles primarily consist of micron-scale particles which are too heavy for Brownian motion to keep them suspended, and thus will settle over time due to the inherent density difference between the particle and its carrier fluid. The particles in a ferrofluids primarily consist of nanoparticles which are suspended by Brownian motion and generally will not settle under normal conditions. As a result, these two fluids have very different applications.
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[edit] How it works
The magnetic particles, which are typically micrometer or nanometer scale spheres or ellipsoids, are suspended within the carrier oil are distributed randomly and in suspension under normal circumstances, as below.
When a magnetic field is applied, however, the microscopic particles (usually in the 0.1-10 µm range) align themselves along the lines of magnetic flux, see below. When the fluid is contained between two poles (typically of separation 0.5-2 mm in the majority of devices), the resulting chains of particles restrict the movement of the fluid, perpendicular to the direction of flux, effectively increasing its viscosity. Importantly, mechanical properties of the fluid in its “on” state are anisotropic. Thus in designing a magnetorheological (or MR) device, it is crucial to ensure that the lines of flux are perpendicular to the direction of the motion to be restricted.
[edit] Material behavior
To understand and predict the behavior of the MR fluid it is necessary to be able to model the fluid mathematically, a task slightly complicated by the varying material properties (such as yield stress), but is possible. As mentioned above, smart fluids are such that they have a low viscosity in the absence of an applied magnetic field, but become quasi-solid with the application of such a field. In the case of MR fluids (and ER), the fluid actually assumes properties comparable to a solid when in the activated ("on") state, up until a point of yield (the shear stress above which shearing occurs). This yield stress (commonly referred to as apparent yield stress) is dependent on the magnetic field applied to the fluid, but will reach a maximum point after which increases in magnetic flux density have no further effect, as the fluid is then magnetically saturated. The behavior of a MR fluid can thus be considered similar to a Bingham plastic, a material model which has been well-investigated.
However, a MR fluid does not exactly follow the characteristics of a Bingham plastic. For example, below the yield stress (in the activated or "on" state), the fluid behaves as a viscoelastic material, with a complex modulus that is also known to be dependent on the magnetic field intensity. MR fluids are also known to be subject to shear thinning, whereby the viscosity above yield decreases with increased shear rate. Furthermore, the behavior of MR fluids when in the "off" state is also non-Newtonian and temperature dependent, however it deviates little enough for the fluid to be ultimately considered as a Bingham plastic for a simple analysis.
Thus our model of MR fluid behavior becomes:
Where τ = shear stress; τy = yield stress; H = Magnetic field intensity η = Newtonian viscosity; 
is the velocity gradient in the z-direction.
[edit] Particle sedimentation
Ferroparticles settle out of the suspension over time due to the inherent density difference between the particles and their carrier fluid. The rate and degree to which this occurs is one of the primary attributes considered in industry when implementing or designing an MR device. Surfactants are typically used to offset this effect, but at a cost of the fluid's magnetic saturation, and thus the maximum yield stress exhibited in its activated state.
[edit] Common MR fluid surfactants
MR fluids often contain surfactants including, but not limited to:
These surfactants serve to decrease the rate of ferroparticle settling, of which a high rate is an unfavorable characteristic of MR fluids. The ideal MR fluid would never settle, but developing this ideal fluid is as highly improbable as developing a perpetual motion machine according to our current understanding of the laws of physics. Surfactant-aided prolonged settling is typically achieved in one of two ways: by addition of surfactants, and by addition of spherical ferromagnetic nanoparticles. Addition of the nanoparticles results in the larger particles staying suspended longer since to the non-settling nanoparticles interfere with the settling of the larger micron-scale particles due to Brownian motion. Addition of a surfactant allows micelles to form around the ferroparticles. A surfactant has a polar head and non-polar tail (or vice versa), one of which adsorbs to a nanoparticle, while the non-polar tail (or polar head) sticks out into the carrier medium, forming an inverse or regular micelle,respectively, around the particle. This increases the effective particle diameter. Steric repulsion then prevents heavy agglomeration of the particles in their settled state, which makes fluid remixing (particle redispersion) occur far faster and with less effort. For example, magnetorheological dampers will remix within one cycle with a surfactant additive, but are nearly impossible to remix without them.
While surfactants are useful in prolonging the settling rate in MR fluids, they also prove detrimental to the fluid's magnetic properties (specifically, the magnetic saturation), which is commonly a parameter which users wish to maximize in order to increase the maximum apparent yield stress. Whether the anti-settling additive is nanosphere-based or surfactant-based, their addition decreases the packing density of the ferroparticles while in its activated state, thus decreasing the fluids on-state/activated viscosity, resulting in a "softer" activated fluid with a lower maximum apparent yield stress. While the on-state viscosity (the "hardness" of the activated fluid) is also a primary concern for many MR fluid applications, it is a primary fluid property for the majority of their commercial and industrial applications and therefore a compromise must be met when considering on-state viscosity, maximum apparent yields stress, and settling rate of an MR fluid.
[edit] Modes of operation and applications
A MR fluid is used in one of three main modes of operation, these being flow mode, shear mode and squeeze-flow mode. These modes involve, respectively, fluid flowing as a result of pressure gradient between two stationary plates; fluid between two plates moving relative to one another; and fluid between two plates moving in the direction perpendicular to their planes. In all cases the magnetic field is perpendicular to the planes of the plates, so as to restrict fluid in the direction parallel to the plates.
[edit] Flow mode
[edit] Shear Mode
[edit] Squeeze-Flow Mode
The applications of these various modes are numerous. Flow mode can be used in dampers and shock absorbers, by using the movement to be controlled to force the fluid through channels, across which a magnetic field is applied. Shear mode is particularly useful in clutches and brakes - in places where rotational motion must be controlled. Squeeze-flow mode, on the other hand, is most suitable for applications controlling small, millimeter-order movements but involving large forces. This particular flow mode has seen the least investigation so far. Overall, between these three modes of operation, MR fluids can be applied successfully to a wide range of applications. However, some limitations exist which are necessary to mention here.
[edit] Limitations
Although smart fluids are rightly seen as having many potential applications, they are limited in commercial feasibility for the following reasons:
- High density, due to presence of iron, makes them heavy. However, operating volumes are small, so while this is a problem, it is not insurmountable.
- High-quality fluids are expensive.
- Fluids are subject to thickening after prolonged use and need replacing.
Commercial applications do exist, as mentioned, but will continue to be few until these problems (particularly cost) are overcome.
[edit] Applications
The application set for MR fluids is vast, and it expands with each advance in the dynamics of the fluid.
[edit] Mechanical engineering
Magnetorheological dampers of various applications have been and continue to be developed. These dampers are mainly used in heavy industry with applications such as heavy motor dampening, operator seat/cab dampening in construction vehicles, and more.
As of 2006, materials scientists and mechanical engineers are collaborating to develop stand-alone seismic dampers which, when positioned anywhere within a building, will operate within the building's resonance frequency, absorbing detrimental shock waves and oscillations within the structure, giving these dampers the ability to make any building earthquake-proof, or at least earthquake-resistant.
[edit] Optics
Magnetorheological Finishing, a magnetorheological fluid-based optical polishing method, has proven to be highly precise. It was used in the construction of the Hubble Space Telescope's corrective lens.
[edit] Automotive and aerospace
If the shock absorbers of a vehicle's suspension are filled with MR fluid instead of plain oil, and the whole device surrounded with an electromagnet, the viscosity of the fluid (and hence the amount of damping provided by the shock absorber) can be varied depending on driver preference or the weight being carried by the vehicle - or it may be dynamically varied in order to provide stability control. This is in effect a magnetorheological damper. The MagneRide magnetic ride control (a kind of active suspension) is one such system which permits the damping factor to be adjusted once every millisecond in response to conditions. As of 2007, BMW manufactures cars using their own proprietary version of this device, while Audi, and Ferrari offer the MagneRide on various models.
General Motors and other automotive companies are seeking to develop a magnetorheological fluid based clutch system for push-button four wheel drive systems. This clutch system would use electromagnets to solidify the fluid which would lock the driveshaft into the drive train.
Military and commercial helicopters utilize magnetorheological dampers in cockpit seats as safety devices in the event of a crash. This decreases the shock delivered to each passenger's spinal column thereby decreasing the rate of permanent injury during a crash.
[edit] Human Prosthetics
Magnetorheological dampers are utilized in semi-active human prosthetic legs. Much like those used in military and commercial helicopters, a damper in the prosthetic leg decreases the shock delivered to the patients leg when jumping, for example. This results in an increased mobility and agility for the patient.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- Stanway, R – Smart Fluids: Current and Future Developments. Materials Science and Technology, 20, pp931-939, 2004
- Jolly, M R; Bender, J W and Carlson D J – Properties and Applications of Commercial Magnetorheological Fluids. SPIE 5th Annual Int Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials, 1998.
[edit] External links
- Smart Materials
- Some freely-accessible MRF articles
- Experimenting with magnetorheological fluids - Preparation instructions
